Potassium-Enriched Salt Substitutes: A Review of Recommendations in Clinical Management Guidelines.

Excess dietary sodium intake and insufficient dietary potassium intake are both well-established risk factors for hypertension. Despite some successful initiatives, efforts to control hypertension by improving dietary intake have largely failed because the changes required are mostly too hard to implement. Consistent recent data from randomized controlled trials show that potassium-enriched, sodium-reduced salt substitutes are an effective option for improving consumption levels and reducing blood pressure and the rates of cardiovascular events and deaths. Yet, salt substitutes are inconsistently recommended and rarely used. We sought to define the extent to which evidence about the likely benefits and harms of potassium-enriched salt substitutes has been incorporated into clinical management by systematically searching guidelines for the management of hypertension or chronic kidney disease. We found incomplete and inconsistent recommendations about the use of potassium-enriched salt substitutes in the 32 hypertension and 14 kidney guidelines that we reviewed. Discussion among the authors identified the possibility of updating clinical guidelines to provide consistent advice about the use of potassium-enriched salt for hypertension control. Draft wording was chosen to commence debate and progress consensus building: strong recommendation for patients with hypertension-potassium-enriched salt with a composition of 75% sodium chloride and 25% potassium chloride should be recommended to all patients with hypertension, unless they have advanced kidney disease, are using a potassium supplement, are using a potassium-sparing diuretic, or have another contraindication. We strongly encourage clinical guideline bodies to review their recommendations about the use of potassium-enriched salt substitutes at the earliest opportunity.

Estimated health benefits, costs and cost-effectiveness of eliminating dietary industrial trans fatty acids in Kenya: cost-effectiveness analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To model the potential health gains and cost-effectiveness of a mandatory limit of industrial trans fatty acids (iTFA) in Kenyan foods. DESIGN: Multiple cohort proportional multistate life table model, incorporating existing data from the Global Burden of Disease study, pooled analyses of observational studies and peer-reviewed evidence of healthcare and policy implementation costs. SETTING: Kenya. PARTICIPANTS: Adults aged ≥20 years at baseline (n=50 million). INTERVENTION: A mandatory iTFA limit (≤2% of all fats) in the Kenyan food supply compared with a base case scenario of maintaining current trans fat intake. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Averted ischaemic heart disease (IHD) events and deaths, health-adjusted life years; healthcare costs; policy implementation costs; net costs; and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio. RESULTS: Over the first 10 years, the intervention was estimated to prevent ~1900 (95% uncertainty interval (UI): 1714; 2148) IHD deaths and ~17 000 (95% UI: 15 475; 19 551) IHD events, and to save ~US$50 million (95% UI: 44; 56). The corresponding estimates over the lifespan of the model population were ~49 000 (95% UI: 43 775; 55 326) IHD deaths prevented, ~113 000 (95% UI: 100 104; 127 969) IHD events prevented and some ~US$300 million (256; 331) saved. Policy implementation costs were estimated as ~US$9 million over the first 10 years and ~US$20 million over the population lifetime. The intervention was estimated to be cost saving regardless of the time horizon. Findings were robust across multiple sensitivity analyses. CONCLUSIONS: Findings support policy action for a mandatory iTFA limit as a cost-saving strategy to avert IHD events and deaths in Kenya.

The availability, price, and characteristics of low sodium salt based on an online salt market survey in China: Implications for scaling up its use.

Low sodium salt (LSS) is an effective way to reduce the primary source of sodium from home cooking. To investigate the availability, price and characteristics of LSS, price gap between LSS and regular salt, and the potential size of subsidy needed to equalize the price of LSS and regular salt. A market survey of salts was conducted using two major online shopping sites JD and Taobao from November to December 2022. Of 360 salts, 76 (21.1%) are LSS and 284 (78.9%) are regular salt. The average proportion of potassium chloride is low (16.8%), and half of the brands contain less than 15% and only 6.6% contains ≥25%. The mean price of LSS is slightly but not significantly higher than that of regular salts (1.82 versus 1.67 yuan/100 g, p = .07). In the lowest quartile by price, the cost of LSS is significantly higher than regular salts (difference 0.13, p = .0048). Further, when comparing the lowest price LSS to the lowest price regular since within the same brand, the mean price LSS is 2.11-fold that of the regular salt (1.66 versus 0.79 yuan/100 g, p < .05). The price of iodized LSS is also significantly higher than that of iodized regular salt (1.86 verse 1.44 yuan/100 g, p = .044). An annual subsidy based on the difference in price in the first quartile would cost 4.75 yuan per capita. A variety of LSS are available in China's salt market.

Considerations for modelling a broad food tax in the Philippines and other low-income and middle-income countries.

Fiscal policies to improve diet are a promising strategy to address the increasing burden of non-communicable disease, the leading cause of death globally. Sugar-sweetened beverage taxes are the most implemented type of fiscal policy to improve diet. Yet taxes on food, if appropriately structured and applied across the food supply, may support a larger population-level shift towards a healthier diet. Designing these policies and guiding them through the legislative process requires evidence. Equity-oriented cost-effectiveness analyses that estimate the distribution of potential health and economic gains can provide this critical evidence. Taxes on less healthy foods are rarely modelled in low-income and middle-income countries.We describe considerations for modelling the effect of a food tax, which can provide guidance for food tax policy design. This includes describing issues related to the availability, reliability and level of detail of national data on dietary habits, the nutrient content of foods and food prices; the structure of the nutrient profile model; type of tax; tax rate; pass-through rate and price elasticity. Using the Philippines as an example, we discuss considerations for using existing data to model the potential effect of a tax, while also taking into account the political and food policy context. In this way, we provide a modelling framework that can help guide policy-makers and advocates in designing a food policy to improve the health and well-being of future generations in the Philippines and elsewhere.

'Love with Less Salt': evaluation of a sodium reduction mass media campaign in China.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines the impact of a salt reduction campaign on knowledge, attitudes, intentions, behaviours and barriers to behaviour change relating to salt consumption in two provinces of China. METHODS: In 2019, the 'Love with Less Salt' campaign ran on China Central Television and on local television channels in Shandong and Anhui provinces. Data for this study come from two representative household surveys conducted among a sample of adults aged 25-65 years in Shandong and Anhui provinces: precampaign (n=2000) and postcampaign (n=2015). Logistic regression was performed to estimate the effects of the campaign on knowledge, attitudes, intentions, behaviours and barriers to behaviour change. RESULTS: Overall, 13% of postcampaign respondents recalled seeing the campaign, and reactions towards the campaign were positive. Postcampaign respondents were more likely to plan to reduce their purchase of foods high in salt than precampaign respondents (OR=1.45, p=<0.05). Campaign-aware respondents were significantly more likely than campaign-unaware respondents to report higher levels of knowledge, attitudes and behaviours regarding salt reduction. CONCLUSIONS: Findings reveal that salt reduction mass media campaigns can be an effective public health tool to support efforts to reduce salt consumption in China. Continued and sustained mass media investments are likely to be effective in addressing high salt consumption nationwide.

Delayed Finalization of Sodium Targets in the United States May Cost Over 250 000 Lives by 2031.

BACKGROUND: The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) proposed 2- and 10-year voluntary sodium-reduction targets for >150 packaged- and prepared-food categories in 2016 and finalized the short-term targets in 2021. METHODS: We modeled the health benefits of implementing the newly finalized sodium targets, and the net health losses because of the 4.3-year delay in finalizing the sodium targets in different compliance scenarios in adults aged ≥30, using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2015 to 2016 cycle. The health impact was estimated by multiplying the projected reduction in population sodium intake by the annual health benefits resulting from every 1000-mg reduction in daily sodium intake. RESULTS: Under certain assumptions, the FDA's finalization of the short-term targets in Oct 2021 and possible finalization of the long-term targets by April 2024 is projected to save up to 445 979 (95% CI, 17 349-787 352) lives in the coming 10 years. The net number of unnecessary deaths because of FDA's delay is projected to be as high as 264 644 (95% CI, 10 295-467 215) according to our prediction. CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight the enormous health costs due to the FDA's delay in finalizing the sodium-reduction targets, and the great potential health benefits of industry compliance with the FDA's finalization of its short- and long-term targets in the coming 10 years.

Impact of color-coded and warning nutrition labelling schemes: A systematic review and network meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Suboptimal diets are a leading risk factor for death and disability. Nutrition labelling is a potential method to encourage consumers to improve dietary behaviour. This systematic review and network meta-analysis (NMA) summarises evidence on the impact of colour-coded interpretive labels and warning labels on changing consumers' purchasing behaviour. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We conducted a literature review of peer-reviewed articles published between 1 January 1990 and 24 May 2021 in PubMed, Embase via Ovid, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and SCOPUS. Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-experimental studies were included for the primary outcomes (measures of changes in consumers' purchasing and consuming behaviour). A frequentist NMA method was applied to pool the results. A total of 156 studies (including 101 RCTs and 55 non-RCTs) nested in 138 articles were incorporated into the systematic review, of which 134 studies in 120 articles were eligible for meta-analysis. We found that the traffic light labelling system (TLS), nutrient warning (NW), and health warning (HW) were associated with an increased probability of selecting more healthful products (odds ratios [ORs] and 95% confidence intervals [CIs]: TLS, 1.5 [1.2, 1.87]; NW, 3.61 [2.82, 4.63]; HW, 1.65 [1.32, 2.06]). Nutri-Score (NS) and warning labels appeared effective in reducing consumers' probability of selecting less healthful products (NS, 0.66 [0.53, 0.82]; NW,0.65 [0.54, 0.77]; HW,0.64 [0.53, 0.76]). NS and NW were associated with an increased overall healthfulness (healthfulness ratings of products purchased using models such as FSAm-NPS/HCSP) by 7.9% and 26%, respectively. TLS, NS, and NW were associated with a reduced energy (total energy: TLS, -6.5%; NS, -6%; NW, -12.9%; energy per 100 g/ml: TLS, -3%; NS, -3.5%; NW, -3.8%), sodium (total sodium/salt: TLS, -6.4%; sodium/salt per 100 g/ml: NS: -7.8%), fat (total fat: NS, -15.7%; fat per 100 g/ml: TLS: -2.6%; NS: -3.2%), and total saturated fat (TLS, -12.9%; NS: -17.1%; NW: -16.3%) content of purchases. The impact of TLS, NS, and NW on purchasing behaviour could be explained by improved understanding of the nutrition information, which further elicits negative perception towards unhealthful products or positive attitudes towards healthful foods. Comparisons across label types suggested that colour-coded labels performed better in nudging consumers towards the purchase of more healthful products (NS versus NW: 1.51 [1.08, 2.11]), while warning labels have the advantage in discouraging unhealthful purchasing behaviour (NW versus TLS: 0.81 [0.67, 0.98]; HW versus TLS: 0.8 [0.63, 1]). Study limitations included high heterogeneity and inconsistency in the comparisons across different label types, limited number of real-world studies (95% were laboratory studies), and lack of long-term impact assessments. CONCLUSIONS: Our systematic review provided comprehensive evidence for the impact of colour-coded labels and warnings in nudging consumers' purchasing behaviour towards more healthful products and the underlying psychological mechanism of behavioural change. Each type of label had different attributes, which should be taken into consideration when making front-of-package nutrition labelling (FOPL) policies according to local contexts. Our study supported mandatory front-of-pack labelling policies in directing consumers' choice and encouraging the food industry to reformulate their products. PROTOCOL REGISTRY: PROSPERO (CRD42020161877).

Core Strategies to Increase the Uptake and Use of Potassium-Enriched Low-Sodium Salt.

Excess sodium consumption and insufficient potassium intake contribute to high blood pressure and thus increase the risk of heart disease and stroke. In low-sodium salt, a portion of the sodium in salt (the amount varies, typically ranging from 10 to 50%) is replaced with minerals such as potassium chloride. Low-sodium salt may be an effective, scalable, and sustainable approach to reduce sodium and therefore reduce blood pressure and cardiovascular disease at the population level. Low-sodium salt programs have not been widely scaled up, although they have the potential to both reduce dietary sodium intake and increase dietary potassium intake. This article proposes a framework for a successful scale-up of low-sodium salt use in the home through four core strategies: availability, awareness and promotion, affordability, and advocacy. This framework identifies challenges and potential solutions within the core strategies to begin to understand the pathway to successful program implementation and evaluation of low-sodium salt use.

Barriers and Facilitators to Implementing Reduced-Sodium Salts as a Population-Level Intervention: A Qualitative Study.

Widespread use of reduced-sodium salts can potentially lower excessive population-level dietary sodium intake. This study aimed to identify key barriers and facilitators to implementing reduced-sodium salt as a population level intervention. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with key informants from academia, the salt manufacturing industry, and government. We used the reach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenance (RE-AIM) framework to inform our interview guides and data analysis. Eighteen key informants from nine countries across five World Health Organization regions participated in the study from January 2020 to July 2020. Participants were concerned about the lack of robust evidence on safety for specific populations such as those with renal impairment. Taste and price compared to regular salt and an understanding of the potential health benefits of reduced-sodium salt were identified as critical factors influencing the adoption of reduced-sodium salts. Higher production costs, low profit return, and reduced market demand for reduced-sodium salts were key barriers for industry in implementation. Participants provided recommendations as potential strategies to enhance the uptake. There are presently substantial barriers to the widespread use of reduced-sodium salt but there are also clear opportunities to take actions that would increase uptake.

Strengthening Knowledge to Practice on Effective Salt Reduction Interventions in Low- and Middle-Income Countries.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The objective of this review was to consolidate available published information on the implementation and evaluation of salt reduction interventions in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). RECENT FINDINGS: The Science of Salt database (made up of studies identified in a weekly Medline search) was used to retrieve articles related to the implementation of salt reduction interventions from June 2013 to February 2020. Studies that measured the effects of the interventions in LMICs, based on four outcome measures-salt intake; sodium levels in foods; knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours (KABs) towards salt; and blood pressure-were included. Results were summarised overall and according to subgroups of intervention type, duration, sample size, country's income class, and regional classification. The review identified 32 studies, representing 13 upper middle-income and four lower middle-income countries. The main salt reduction interventions were education, food reformulation, and salt substitution; and many interventions were multi-faceted. More studies reported a positive effect of the interventions (decreased salt intake (12/17); lower sodium levels in foods or compliance with agreed targets (6/6); improved KAB (17/19); and decreased blood pressure (10/14)) than a null effect, and no study reported a negative effect of the intervention. However, many studies were of small scale and targeted specific groups, and none was from low-income countries. Consumer education, food reformulation, and salt substitution, either alone or in combination, were effective in their target populations. Supporting scale-up of salt reduction interventions in LMICs is essential to cover broader populations and to increase their public health impact.

Dietary Sources of Plasma trans Fatty Acids among Adults in the United States: NHANES 2009-2010.

BACKGROUND: Intake of trans fatty acids (TFAs) increases LDL cholesterol, decreases HDL cholesterol, and increases the risk of heart disease morbidity and mortality. Many food products potentially contain industrially produced or ruminant TFAs. However, little is known about the dietary sources of plasma TFA concentrations. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to examine associations between foods consumed and plasma TFA concentrations using 24-h dietary recall data and plasma TFA measures among adults aged ≥20 y who participated in the NHANES 2009-2010 in the United States. METHODS: Over 4400 food products in the dietary interview data were categorized into 32 food and beverage groups/subgroups. Four major plasma TFAs (palmitelaidic acid, elaidic acid, vaccenic acid, linolelaidic acid) and the sum of the 4 TFAs (sumTFAs) were analyzed using GC-MS. Multivariable linear regression analyses were conducted to identify associations of plasma TFAs with all 32 food and beverage groups/subgroups, controlling for the potential confounding effects of 11 demographic, socioeconomic, behavioral, lifestyle, and health-related variables. RESULTS: Consumption of the following food groups/subgroups was significantly associated with elevated plasma TFA concentrations: cream substitutes (P < 0.001 for palmitelaidic acid, elaidic acid, vaccenic acid, and sumTFAs); cakes, cookies, pastries, and pies (P < 0.001 for elaidic acid, vaccenic acid, and sumTFAs; P < 0.05 for linolelaidic acid); milk and milk desserts (P < 0.01 for palmitelaidic acid and vaccenic acid; P < 0.05 for linolelaidic acid and sumTFAs); beef/veal, lamb/goat, and venison/deer (P < 0.01 for vaccenic acid; P < 0.05 for sumTFAs); and butters (P < 0.001 for palmitelaidic acid and vaccenic acid; P < 0.05 for sumTFAs). CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that the above 5 food groups/subgroups could be the main dietary sources of plasma TFAs among adults in the United States in 2009-2010.

Availability, Formulation, Labeling, and Price of Low-sodium Salt Worldwide: Environmental Scan.

BACKGROUND: Regular salt is about 100% sodium chloride. Low-sodium salts have reduced sodium chloride content, most commonly through substitution with potassium chloride. Low-sodium salts have a potential role in reducing the population's sodium intake levels and blood pressure, but their availability in the global market is unknown. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to assess the availability, formulation, labeling, and price of low-sodium salts currently available to consumers worldwide. METHODS: Low-sodium salts were identified through a systematic literature review, Google search, online shopping site searches, and inquiry of key informants. The keywords "salt substitute," "low-sodium salt," "potassium salt," "mineral salt," and "sodium reduced salt" in six official languages of the United Nations were used for the search. Information about the brand, formula, labeling, and price was extracted and analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 87 low-sodium salts were available in 47 out of 195 (24%) countries worldwide, including 28 high-income countries, 13 upper-middle-income countries, and 6 lower-middle-income countries. The proportion of sodium chloride varied from 0% (sodium-free) to 88% (as percent of weight; regular salt is 100% sodium chloride). Potassium chloride was the most frequent component with levels ranging from 0% to 100% (potassium chloride salt). A total of 43 (49%) low-sodium salts had labels with the potential health risks, and 33 (38%) had labels with the potential health benefits. The median price of low-sodium salts in high-income, upper-middle-income, and lower-middle-income countries was US $15.00/kg (IQR 6.4-22.5), US $2.70/kg (IQR 1.7-5.5), and US $2.90/kg (IQR 0.50-22.2), respectively. The price of low-sodium salts was between 1.1 and 14.6 times that of regular salts. CONCLUSIONS: Low-sodium salts are not widely available and are commonly more expensive than regular salts. Policies that promote the availability, affordability, and labeling of low-sodium salts should increase uptake, helping populations reduce blood pressure and prevent cardiovascular diseases. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): RR2-10.1111/jch.14054.

The cost-effectiveness of government actions to reduce sodium intake through salt substitutes in Vietnam.

BACKGROUND: Dietary sodium reduction is recommended to reduce the burden of cardiovascular disease. In Vietnam food products including salt, fish sauce and bot canh contribute to ~ 70% of dietary sodium intake. Reduced sodium versions of these products can be produced by replacing some of the sodium chloride with potassium chloride. We aimed to assess the cost-effectiveness of three alternative approaches to introducing reduced sodium products onto the market with a view to lowering population sodium intake in Vietnam. METHODS: The three salt substitution strategies included voluntary, subsidised and regulatory approaches targeting salt, fish sauce and bot canh products. Costs were modelled using the WHO-CHOICE methodology. A Markov cohort model was developed to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of each strategy versus no intervention from the government perspective. The model linked each intervention strategy to assumed changes in levels of sodium intake and then to systolic blood pressure. Changes in SBP were linked to a probability of ischaemic heart disease or stroke. The model followed people over their lifetime to assess average costs and quality adjusted life years (QALYs) gained for each strategy. RESULTS: The voluntary salt substitution strategy was assumed to require no investment by government. Following ramp up (years 6+), the average annual costs for the subsidised and regulatory strategies were 21,808,968,902 ₫ (US$ 977,354) and 12,949,953,247 ₫ (US$ 580,410) respectively. Relative to no intervention, all three salt substitution strategies were found to be cost-effective. Cost savings were driven by reductions in strokes (32,595; 768,384; 2,366,480) and ischaemic heart disease (IHD) events (22,830; 537,157; 1,648,590) for the voluntary, subsidised & regulatory strategies, respectively. The voluntary strategy was least cost-effective (- 3445 ₫ US$ -0.15; 0.009 QALYs gained) followed by the subsidised strategy (- 43,189 ₫ US$ -1.86; 0.022 QALYs gained) and the regulatory strategy delivered the highest cost savings and health gains (- 243,530 ₫ US$ -10.49; 0.074 QALYs gained). CONCLUSION: This research shows that all three modelled salt substitution strategies would be good value for money relative to no intervention in Vietnam. The subsidised alternative would require the highest level of government investment; however the implementation costs will be exceeded by healthcare savings assuming a reasonable time horizon is considered.

Cost assessment of a program for laboratory testing of plasma trans-fatty acids in Thailand.

Objectives: Intake of trans fatty acids (TFA) increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. Assessment of TFA exposure in the population is key for determining TFA burden and monitoring change over time. One approach for TFA monitoring is measurement of TFA levels in plasma. Understanding costs associated with this approach can facilitate program planning, implementation and scale-up. This report provides an assessment of costs associated with a pilot program to measure plasma TFA levels in Thailand. Study design: Cost analysis in a laboratory facility in Thailand. Methods: We defined three broad cost modules: laboratory, personnel, and facility costs, which were further classified into sub-components and into fixed and variable categories. Costs were estimated based on the number of processed plasma samples (100-2700 in increments of 50) per year over a certain number of years (1-5), in both USD and Thai Baht. Total cost and average costs per sample were estimated across a range of samples processed. Results: The average cost per sample of analyzing 900 samples annually over 5 years was estimated at USD186. Laboratory, personnel, and facility costs constitute 67%, 23%, and 10% of costs, respectively. The breakdown across fixed costs, such as laboratory instruments and personnel, and variable costs, such as chemical supplies, was 60% and 40%, respectively. Average costs decline as more samples are processed: the cost per sample for analyzing 100, 500, 1500, and 2500 samples per year over 5 years is USD1351, USD301, USD195; and USD177, respectively. Conclusions: Laboratory analysis of plasma TFA levels has high potential for economies of scale, encouraging a long-term approach to TFA monitoring initiatives, particularly in countries that already maintain national biometric repositories.

Reducing Premature Mortality from Cardiovascular and Other Non-Communicable Diseases by One Third: Achieving Sustainable Development Goal Indicator 3.4.1.

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are the world's leading causes of death and disability, with cardiovascular disease (CVD) accounting for half of NCD deaths. An ambitious global target established by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals - indicator 3.4.1 - aims to reduce the risk of premature death among people aged 30-69 years from CVD, cancer, diabetes, and chronic lung disease by one third by 2030. This article reviews the science and practice informing what is required to achieve this target, identifying seven interventions that can accelerate progress: 1) tobacco control; 2) treatment to reduce cardiovascular risk; 3) reduction of dietary sodium; 4) reduction of household air pollution; 5) elimination of artificial trans fat; 6) reduction of alcohol use; and 7) prevention, detection, and treatment of cancers. Achieving the target is possible - there has already been progress in some areas, particularly related to CVD reduction - but only if there is faster, more concerted action.

The cost-effectiveness of hypertension management in low-income and middle-income countries: a review.

Hypertension in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) is largely undiagnosed and uncontrolled, representing an untapped opportunity for public health improvement. Implementation of hypertension control strategies in low-resource settings depends in large part on cost considerations. However, evidence on the cost-effectiveness of hypertension interventions in LMICs is varied across geographical, clinical and evaluation contexts. We conducted a comprehensive search for published economic evaluations of hypertension treatment programmes in LMICs. The search identified 71 articles assessing a wide range of hypertension intervention designs and cost components, of which 42 studies across 15 countries reported estimates of cost-effectiveness. Although comparability of results was limited due to heterogeneity in the interventions assessed, populations studied, costs and study quality score, most interventions that reported cost per averted disability-adjusted life-year (DALY) were cost-effective, with costs per averted DALY not exceeding national income thresholds. Programme elements that may reduce cost-effectiveness included screening for hypertension at younger ages, addressing prehypertension, or treating patients at lower cardiovascular disease risk. Cost-effectiveness analysis could provide the evidence base to guide the initiation and development of hypertension programmes.