A neurological foundation for peaceful negotiations.

Glowacki explored the conditions required for peace and argued its preconditions arose only within the last 100,000 years. The present commentary addresses some major brain changes that occurred only in Homo sapiens within that period of time and the verbal and nonverbal cognitive sequelae of those neurological changes that may have aided the diplomatic negotiations required for peaceful solutions.

On the relationship between neurocognitive measures and olfactory dysfunction in COVID-19 patients with and without anosmia.

One of the predominant symptoms of the COVID-19 virus is the complete (anosmia) or partial (hyposmia) loss of smell. Anosmia may be a critical neurocognitive symptom because there is an empirically demonstrated association of anosmia with neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, etc. The present study assessed the neurocognitive disorder patterns in recovered COVID-19 patients who either self-reported anosmia or its absence. Of the 60 adult participants (n = 32 males, n = 28 females; Mage = 20.78 years, range = 18-31 years), 15 reported COVID-19 induced anosmia, 15 reported COVID-19 without anosmia, and 30 reported not having contracted COVID-19. The participants were first administered a 10-item smell test, and analysis of variance revealed significantly better scores for the control group than the other two groups. Further, there was no significant difference in smell scores between the patients who self-reported anosmia or denied it. This statistical pattern was consistent across all neuropsychological tests: short- and long-term verbal memory, digit span, Trail Making, and a self-report 46-item neurocognitive scale. Regardless of the self-report of anosmia or denial, all thirty COVID-19 patients scored significantly poorer than the control group on all of the tests and neurocognitive scale. In summary, the self-report of anosmia appears to be unreliable, and the COVID-19 patients who were found to be anosmic on the initial objective smell test demonstrated poorer neuropsychological performance than controls.

Impact of self-reported cognitive dysfunction on the alternative model of personality disorders among older adults.

METHOD: Older adults (N = 202) completed the Levels of Personality Functioning Scale-Self-Report, Personality Inventory for DSM-5, and Coolidge Axis II Inventory with its six self-report cognitive dysfunction scales. RESULTS: Results suggested high correlational overlap between subjective cognitive problems with personality functioning and pathological personality, as measured by the AMPD. Hierarchical regressions revealed that subjective measures of executive functions, perceptual motor, and language difficulties were most strongly related to the AMPD's constructs. Results are discussed in the context of prior research on objective cognitive impairment among individuals with PDs. CONCLUSION: The degree of overlap found within the current older adult sample suggested an age-related problem or potential age-bias, with older adults being at-risk of (a) having their subjective cognitive problems being incorrectly interpreted as personality pathology under the AMPD or (b) having personality pathology being overlooked under the AMPD, with symptoms instead attributed to subjective cognitive issues. This study suggested that subjective cognitive dysfunction may be one mechanism that contributes to differential performance of the AMPD among older adults.

The psychometric properties of a self-report inventory of autistic symptoms in individuals with autism spectrum disorder.

INTRODUCTION AND METHODS: This study examined 85 parental-reports with 85 self-reports of autistic symptoms with the 84-item Coolidge Autistic Symptom Survey (CASS). The CASS covers all of the diagnostic criteria for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), as no studies to date have compared the self-reports of individuals with autism with parent- or significant-other-reports of those individuals using the complete DSM-5. RESULTS: The CASS-Parental-Report and CASS-Self-Report exhibited excellent internal reliability (α = 0.97 and 0.96, respectively). There was support for the hypothesis that parental-reports and self-reports would be similar (r = 0.66, p < 0.001). DISCUSSION: In conclusion, the CASS should be considered a promising tool for assessing autistic symptoms from both parent- and self-perspectives.

Psychometric properties of the behavior rating inventory of executive function, second edition (BRIEF2) in a sample of children with ADHD in Iran.

This study investigated the psychometric properties of a Persian translation of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function(BRIEF2) in 253 children with ADHD in Iran (137 boys, 116 girls)ages 8 to 12 years old (M = 10.04; SD = 1.42). The parents of the children completed the Persian BRIEF2 and the Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI). The findings indicated that the Persian version of BRIEF2 had good reliability (internal and test-retest) and satisfactory to good validity (convergent and construct). With respect to its construct validity, confirmatory factor analysis revealed that a three-factor solution was the best model fit for the nine subscales of the BRIEF2, which supports the valid interpretation of the three BRIEF2 indexes in the Persian BRIEF2. These findings support the clinical relevance of the Persian BRIEF in Iranian children with ADHD, as well as the multidimensional nature of executive functions.

Relationships Among Executive Dysfunction, Constructive Worrying, and Worry Responses in Older Adults.

Worry is a ubiquitous human experience and core symptom of anxiety. The present study examined the extent to which specific aspects of worry are related to perceived executive dysfunction in older adults. A total of 100 older adult participants (M age = 68.82 years; range = 65-79 years) completed the Worry Behaviors Inventory, the Coolidge Axis II Inventory Executive Dysfunctions Scale, and the Constructive and Unconstructive Worry Questionnaire. Multiple regression analyses found that worry constructiveness and response behaviors were predictive of executive dysfunction. Specifically, greater avoidance behaviors and unconstructive worry were uniquely predictive of greater executive dysfunctions. Thus, findings indicate that worry constructiveness and approaches to worry management are significantly related to cognitive functioning in older adults. These findings imply a need to assess both worry and executive dysfunction to more accurately determine causal factors regarding anxiety and cognitive decline in older adults.

Fear and Derision: A Quantitative Content Analysis of Provaccine and Antivaccine Internet Memes.

The purpose of the study was to examine the characteristics of Internet memes created and disseminated by proponents and opponents of vaccinations. A quantitative content analysis was performed on 234 pro- and antivaccine memes culled from the vaccination fan pages with the greatest number of followers on Facebook. Coding variables included whether the meme was pro- or antivaccine, percentage of factually incorrect claims, mention of the out-group, persuasive appeals (emotion, fear, and rationality), degree of sarcasm, and number of reactions and shares. The most prevalent themes concerned vaccine-preventable diseases, vaccine injury/safety/autism, and conspiracy theories. Independent t tests indicated that provaccination memes were more likely to use sarcasm whereas antivaccination memes were more likely to contain emotion and fear appeals and inaccurate claims. The percentage veracity of the claims in each meme was fact-checked using authoritative scientific sources. A path analysis applying structural equation modeling revealed that memes containing characteristics that were antivaccine (vs. provaccine), appealed to emotion, and appealed to rationality significantly contributed to greater likelihood of social media reactions and shares. Additional analysis determined that both pro- and antivaccination memes tended to contain more gist than verbatim information, and both groups did not significantly differ on this gist-to-verbatim variable. Findings offer insights to understand the persuasion tactics that provaccine and antivaccine groups apply in memes to persuade others via social media. Understanding these techniques will enable the development of health communication strategies to combat false and damaging vaccine information disseminated on the Internet.

A psychometric investigation of highly dependent adult children

This study established the psychometric properties of a new measure to assess the behavior of adults who are highly dependent on their parent(s), particularly in light of their capacity to function independently and whose behavior appears deviant even when compared to cultural norms. In the present study, these adults were labeled Highly Dependent Adult Children (HDAC). A 32-item HDAC Scale was constructed, based on a review of the behaviors typical of HDAC as reported in the relevant literature. It was found to have excellent internal reliability (Cronbach's alfa= .93; N= 665 adults) and good test-retest reliability (r= .84; one-week interval; N= 104 adults). A principal component analysis of the HDAC scale revealed six components: alexithymia, blaming/inadequacy, default dependency, aggression, somatization, and limited socialization (N= 665). The HDAC overall scale sum (N= 104) was correlated strongly and positively with the passive-aggressive, borderline, paranoid, narcissistic, obsessive-compulsive, sadistic, antisocial, schizotypal, and depressive personality disorders scales of the Coolidge Axis II Inventory (CATI), and moderately and positively correlated with a CATI scale measuring executive dysfunction of the frontal lobes. The results of the study suggest that the behaviors associated with HDAC may be related to comorbid alexithymia, personality disorders, and executive dysfunction, and future research with the scale is warranted

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Genetic predilections and predispositions for the development of shamanism.

Singh's cultural evolutionary theory of shamanism provides a valuable framework for understanding shamanism. We argue, however, that a full understanding of shamanism should incorporate the psychological predilections and genetic predispositions commonly found in individual shamans. In other words, only a small subset of individuals in a culture is prone or attracted to shamanistic practices, regardless of the evolutionary value of those practices.

Archeological insights into hominin cognitive evolution.

How did the human mind evolve? How and when did we come to think in the ways we do? The last thirty years have seen an explosion in research related to the brain and cognition. This research has encompassed a range of biological and social sciences, from epigenetics and cognitive neuroscience to social and developmental psychology. Following naturally on this efflorescence has been a heightened interest in the evolution of the brain and cognition. Evolutionary scholars, including paleoanthropologists, have deployed the standard array of evolutionary methods. Ethological and experimental evidence has added significantly to our understanding of nonhuman brains and cognition, especially those of nonhuman primates. Studies of fossil brains through endocasts and sophisticated imaging techniques have revealed evolutionary changes in gross neural anatomy. Psychologists have also gotten into the game through application of reverse engineering to experimentally based descriptions of cognitive functions. For hominin evolution, there is another rich source of evidence of cognition, the archeological record. Using the methods of Paleolithic archeology and the theories and models of cognitive science, evolutionary cognitive archeology documents developments in the hominin mind that would otherwise be inaccessible.

Deliberate self-harm among younger and older adults.

This study examined self-harming behaviors among younger and older adults who completed the Self-Harm Inventory (SHI). A 2 (age group) × 2 (gender) analysis of variance showed a significant main effect for age such that younger adult students (M = 3.42, SD = 3.86) had higher SHI total scores than community-dwelling older adults (M = 1.58, SD = 2.35). Younger adults endorsed "Yes" responses significantly more frequently than older adults on 13 of 22 items. Future research should examine specific behaviors of older adults who self-harm more frequently and explore relationships between self-harming behaviors and other risk and resiliency factors for elder suicide.

Anxiety Sensitivity, Experiential Avoidance, and Mindfulness Among Younger and Older Adults: Age Differences in Risk Factors for Anxiety Symptoms.

In this cross-sectional study, we examined age-related differences in anxiety sensitivity (AS), experiential avoidance (EA), and mindfulness among younger adult students (N=426; M age=20.1 years) and community-dwelling older adults (N=85; M age=71.8 years). Participants anonymously completed the Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3, Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II, Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills, Beck Anxiety Inventory, Geriatric Anxiety Scale, and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Independent t tests indicated that younger adults reported significantly higher levels of AS and EA, whereas older adults reported significantly higher levels of trait mindfulness. Correlational analyses demonstrated that AS and EA were significantly associated with each other and with anxiety-related symptoms. However, trait mindfulness was significantly inversely related to AS, EA, and to trait and state anxiety. To date, these three factors have yet to be examined simultaneously within the context of age differences, and the present study illuminates these differences as well as their relationships. AS, EA, and low mindfulness appear to be significant correlates for anxiety-related symptoms in younger and older adults.

The Barriers to Mental Health Services Scale Revised: Psychometric Analysis Among Older Adults.

OBJECTIVES: Older adults underutilize mental health services suggesting that significant barriers are operating. This study presents reliability and validity data for a revised version of the self-report Barriers to Mental Health Services Scale (BMHSS) designed to quantify 10 barriers to mental health service use, so that barriers can be examined collectively. METHODS: The Barriers to Mental Health Services Scale Revised (BMHSS-R) was revised to improve its reliability and validity, including adding items, eliminating poor items, and balancing the number of items across subscales. A sample of 100 older adults (M age = 72.1 years, SD = 17.8 years) completed the BMHSS-R, the Beliefs Toward Mental Illness Scale, and the Willingness to Seek Help Questionnaire. RESULTS: Internal consistency for the 10 subscales of the BMHSS-R ranged between .63 and .87, with 8 of the 10 values greater than .70. Correlational analyses indicated that many of the subscales overlap considerably but are still distinct. Convergent validity of the BMHSS-R subscales of help-seeking and stigma was partially supported, although correlations were modest. CONCLUSION: Revisions to the BMHSS resulted in improved reliability estimates for use as a measure of perceived barriers to mental health services. We recommend when using the BMHSS-R to combine results with other information (e.g., service utilization data) to characterize a profile of barriers. We discuss directions for future research and further refinement of the BMHSS-R.

Relationships among depressive, passive-aggressive, sadistic and self-defeating personality disorder features with suicidal ideation and reasons for living among older adults.

OBJECTIVES: Suicide among older adults is a major public health problem in the USA. In our recent study, we examined relationships between the 10 standard DSM-5 personality disorders (PDs) and suicidal ideation, and found that the PD dimensions explained a majority (55%) of the variance in suicidal ideation. To extend this line of research, the purpose of the present follow-up study was to explore relationships between the four PDs that previously were included in prior versions of the DSM (depressive, passive-aggressive, sadistic, and self-defeating) with suicidal ideation and reasons for living. METHOD: Community-dwelling older adults (N = 109; age range = 60-95 years; 61% women; 88% European-American) completed anonymously the Coolidge Axis II Inventory, the Reasons for Living Inventory (RFL), and the Geriatric Suicide Ideation Scale (GSIS). RESULTS: Correlational analyses revealed that simple relationships between PD scales with GSIS subscales were generally stronger than with RFL subscales. Regarding GSIS subscales, all four PD scales had medium-to-large positive relationships, with the exception of sadistic PD traits, which was unrelated to the death ideation subscale. Multiple regression analyses showed that the amount of explained variance for the GSIS (48%) was higher than for the RFL (11%), and this finding was attributable to the high predictive power of depressive PD. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that depressive PD features are strongly related to increased suicidal thinking and lowered resilience to suicide among older adults. Assessment of depressive PD features should also be especially included in the assessment of later-life suicidal risk.

A Comparative Study of Group Behavioral Activation and Cognitive Therapy in Reducing Subsyndromal Anxiety and Depressive Symptoms.

OBJECTIVE: This study compared the effectiveness of two group treatments, behavioral activation (BA) and cognitive therapy (CT), in reducing subsyndromal anxiety and depressive symptoms in a sample of Iranian university students. METHOD: Twenty-seven Iranian university students who scored 18 or higher on the depression subscale and 16 or higher on the anxiety subscale of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-42) were randomly assigned into treatment groups. One group received 8 sessions of BA (n = 14), and the other received 8 sessions of group CT (n = 13). RESULT: Analysis of covariance revealed that the BA group had a significantly greater reduction in depressive symptoms than the CT group. However, there were no significant differences between the two groups in the levels of anxiety, stress symptoms or functional impairment after treatment. CONCLUSION: This study found evidence for the effectiveness of BA in reducing anxiety, depressive and stress symptoms and functional impairment compared to CT. BA was more effective than CT in improving depressive symptoms and was as effective as CT in decreasing anxiety, stress and functional impairment. BA is also a cost-effective intervention, particularly in group formats.

Geriatric Anxiety Scale: item response theory analysis, differential item functioning, and creation of a ten-item short form (GAS-10).

BACKGROUND: The Geriatric Anxiety Scale (GAS; Segal et al. (Segal, D. L., June, A., Payne, M., Coolidge, F. L. and Yochim, B. (2010). Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 709-714. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.05.002) is a self-report measure of anxiety that was designed to address unique issues associated with anxiety assessment in older adults. This study is the first to use item response theory (IRT) to examine the psychometric properties of a measure of anxiety in older adults. METHOD: A large sample of older adults (n = 581; mean age = 72.32 years, SD = 7.64 years, range = 60 to 96 years; 64% women; 88% European American) completed the GAS. IRT properties were examined. The presence of differential item functioning (DIF) or measurement bias by age and sex was assessed, and a ten-item short form of the GAS (called the GAS-10) was created. RESULTS: All GAS items had discrimination parameters of 1.07 or greater. Items from the somatic subscale tended to have lower discrimination parameters than items on the cognitive or affective subscales. Two items were flagged for DIF, but the impact of the DIF was negligible. Women scored significantly higher than men on the GAS and its subscales. Participants in the young-old group (60 to 79 years old) scored significantly higher on the cognitive subscale than participants in the old-old group (80 years old and older). CONCLUSIONS: Results from the IRT analyses indicated that the GAS and GAS-10 have strong psychometric properties among older adults. We conclude by discussing implications and future research directions.

Retrospective assessment of premorbid psychopathology and cognitive impairments in bipolar disorder.

The present study investigated whether premorbid psychopathological and cognitive impairment symptoms could be retrospectively identified during the childhood and adolescence of those later diagnosed with bipolar disorder (BPD). The present sample consisted of 30 adults diagnosed with BPD, 30 of their significant-others, a group-matched control group of 30 adults (without any reported psychological or cognitive disorders), and 30 of their significant-others. The adults diagnosed with BPD and the control group completed a self-report form of the retrospective version of the Coolidge Personality and Neuropsychological Inventory (CPNI-R) as they were before the age of 16 years. The significant-others reported on the adults diagnosed with BPD or upon their controls. Initial two-factor analyses of variance revealed that on a comprehensive measure of psychopathology and of cognitive impairment, those diagnosed with BPD scored significantly higher than the control group on the self-report and the significant-other forms, with large effects sizes. Overall, the overarching research hypothesis was confirmed: adults diagnosed with BPD and their significant-others could report salient prodromes during their childhood or adolescence.

Persian version of the Geriatric Anxiety Scale: translation and preliminary psychometric properties among Iranian older adults.

OBJECTIVE: The Geriatric Anxiety Scale (GAS) is a new self-report screening measure designed for older adults. Due to the burgeoning Iranian population of older adults and the need for validated, culturally-appropriate screening measures for anxiety in Iran, the purposes of the present study were to translate the GAS into Persian and to explore its preliminary psychometric properties. METHOD: Iranian older adults (N = 295; M age = 67.0 years) completed the GAS and the Iranian version of the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-15). RESULTS: Cronbach's alpha for the GAS total score and the GAS subscales were excellent (Total score α = .92; Cognitive α = .81; Somatic α = .84; Affective α = .80). As expected, each subscale was significantly positively correlated (all p's < .01) with the other subscales. The subscales share common variance ranging from 42% to 56%. The GAS total score and GAS subscale scores were significantly positively correlated with the GDS-15, with medium effect sizes (GAS Total r = .55; Cognitive r = .51; Somatic r = .50; Affective r = .48). Finally, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to investigate the factor structure of the Persian version of the GAS. Results support a one factor solution (general anxiety) for this Iranian sample. CONCLUSION: This study provides preliminary psychometric support for the Persian version of the GAS as a screening measure for anxiety in Iranian older adults, with a one-dimensional factor structure.