The criterion-referenced validity of the FITNESSGRAM Trunk-Extension test.

AIM: The purpose of this study was to test utility of different fitness field tests to predict self-reported low-back pain (LBP) in youth. METHODS: A sample of 376 school aged (4th through 10th grade students) first completed a survey instrument designed to assess past events (and degree) of LBP. On subsequent days, participants completed a battery of different muscular fitness tests including the current FITNESSGRAM trunk extension test. Receiver operator characteristic curves (ROC) were used to test the utility of single and combined scores from various tests to predict self-reported LBP. RESULTS: The results show that the trunk extension test used in FITNESSGRAM has poor utility for predicting self-reported LBP. In girls, the sit-and-reach, the static curl-up test, and a composite score using static and dynamic curl-up scores had the highest Area Under the Curve (AUC=0.80, 0.71, and 0.79, respectively). Sensitivity (Se) values ranged from 75.0-85.7 while Specificity (Sp) ranged from 59.1-81.4. In boys, the dynamic curl-up test alone was the best predictor of LBP in high-school boys (AUC=0.75, Sensitivity=75.0 and Specificity=74.1). CONCLUSION: The reasonable Sensitivity values from the ROC analyses indicate that individual and aggregate indicators of musculoskeletal fitness can potentially identify girls that had LBP in the past. However, the low values for Specificity indicates that girls with "No LBP" can be misclassified as being at risk for LBP. The current FITNESSGRAM trunk extension test was not able to discriminate between students with and without LBP therefore, the utility of this test for fitness assessment in youth should be revisited.

Restricting opportunities to be active during school time: do children compensate by increasing physical activity levels after school?

Opportunities for children to be physically active during school time are sparse and becoming increasingly so. The purpose of this investigation was to determine if children would compensate for school days (9 a.m.-3 p.m.) of restricted physical activity opportunities by increasing activity levels after school (3 p.m.-7:30 p.m.). Third and fourth grade children (N = 76) each wore a CSA accelerometer for 4 nonconsecutive days. Two days were categorized as active--during school, all children participated in outdoor recess and physical education class. Two days were categorized as restricted--all children spent their recess time indoors at a computer terminal, and no physical education class was scheduled. Dependent t tests revealed that children did not compensate for a sedentary school day by increasing their levels of physical activity after school. In fact, average movement counts per minute were higher in the 3 p.m.-7:30 p.m. period following the active day (525 counts.min-1) versus the restricted day (186 counts.min-1). These findings suggest cause for concern if children's opportunities to be active within school time are limited. Several reasons are given as to why children did not compensate or "make up" for the physical activity opportunities missed during the restricted school day.

Validation of criterion-referenced standards for the mile run and progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance tests.

The purpose of this study was to validate criterion-referenced standards for cardiovascular endurance tests using the criterion-groups validation model. Adolescent boys and girls assigned to either untrained or trained groups were administered the mile run and Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) tests. Selection of optimal criterion standards was based on finding a cutting score that minimized the probability of misclassification errors and maximized the probability of making correct decisions based on participation in physical activity. The results of this study suggest that recent changes in FITNESSGRAM standards are appropriate, especially for the PACER test. While modifications of standards have corrected somewhat for disparities in passing rates between the mile run and the PACER, especially for girls, further study of standards is necessary.

Measurement issues in the assessment of physical activity in children.

This paper reviewed the nature of children's physical activity patterns and how the unique nature of children can impact the assessment of physical activity. To accurately assess children's activity patterns, an instrument must be sensitive enough to detect, code, or record sporadic and intermittent activity. Care also must be used to select criterion measures that reflect appropriate physical activity guidelines for children. A number of different measurement approaches have been described for assessing children's activity, but no specific method can be identified as the best option for all studies. Selection of an appropriate instrument depends on the specific research question being addressed as well as the relative importance of accuracy and practicality (Baranowski & Simons-Morton, 1991). For example, accurate measures of energy expenditure using doubly-labeled water, indirect calorimetry, or heart rate calibration equations may be needed for certain clinical studies, but the cost and inconvenience would make them impractical for field-based assessments on larger samples. The "accuracy-practicality" trade-off presents a more challenging predicament with children than for adults. In adults, a number of self-report instruments have been found useful for large epidemiological studies or interventions where less precision is needed. Because of developmental differences, especially in ability to think abstractly and perform detailed recall (Going et al., 1999; Sallis, 1991), children are less likely to make accurate self-report assessment than adults. Though self-report methods are still likely to be a principal source of information for many studies, other approaches (or the use of combined measures) may be needed to better characterize children's activity levels. While objective instruments (e.g., direct observation or activity monitoring) require more time and resources than self-report, there are options available to simplify data collection. One approach may be to focus assessments on key times or places that allow children to be active. The time after school, for example, appears to be a critical period that defines their propensity for physical activity (Hager, 1999). Monitoring of entire groups for discrete periods of time (e.g., recess or physical education) may also be useful to understand variability in activity patterns since children would all be exposed to the same stimulus or opportunity to be active. Proxy measures may also be useful in studying activity in children. For example, several studies (Baranowski, Thompson, DuRant, Baranowski, & Puhl, 1993; Sallis et al., 1993) have demonstrated that time spent outside is strongly predictive of activity in children. Involvement in community sports programs may also be a useful proxy measure as sports programs have been found to account for approximately 55-65% of children's moderate to vigorous activity (Katzmarzyk & Malina, 1999). Another option for improving assessments in children is to employ multiple measures of physical activity. A number of studies (Coleman, Saelens, Wiedrich-Smith, Finn, & Epstein, 1997; McMurray et al., 1998; Sallis et al., 1998; Simons-Morton et al., 1994) have reported differences in levels of activity when activity monitors were compared with self-report data. The method of measurement has also been shown to influence the results of studies on the determinants of physical activity in children (Epstein, Paluch, Coleman, Vito, & Anderson, 1996). While we do not currently know which measure is most accurate, reporting the results with different instruments provides a more complete description of children's activity and permit a triangulation of outcomes. In summary, there remains no single way of obtaining a highly accurate account of physical activity or energy expenditure in children. The nature of children's movement patterns, the various types of activities engaged in, and the inherent limitations of each assessment tool limit the ultima

Social physique anxiety in postmenopausal women.

Social physique anxiety (SPA), the degree to which individuals become anxious when others observe their bodies, is an important concept for postmenopausal women because it may be directly related to their physical activity behavior. Women with high levels of social physique anxiety may not participate in health-enhancing physical activity. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to examine SPA in postmenopausal women relative to leisure time physical activity (LTPA, activities such as exercise, recreation, and sports). Other factors, such as percent body fat, body fat distribution, age, and hormone replacement therapy status were also examined for their relationship to SPA. Women who expended < or = 500 kcal.wk-1 in LTPA had significantly higher SPA than women who expended > or = 2,000 kcal.wk-1, independent of percent body fat. Women with more than 37.5% body fat had significantly higher SPA than those with less than 37.5% body fat. Women with upper BFD (waist-to-hip ratio or WHR > 0.85) had higher SPA than women with lower BFD (WHR < 0.75). There were no differences in SPA relative to age or HRT status. It appears that a sedentary lifestyle, high percent body fat, and upper body fat distribution are associated with increased SPA in postmenopausal women, thus health promotion professionals should be aware of these concerns when developing physical activity interventions for postmenopausal women.

The validity of the Tritrac-R3D Activity Monitor for the assessment of physical activity in children.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the validity of the Tritrac-R3D Activity Monitor, a new instrument designed to improve assessments of physical activity. Comparisons were made with a heart rate monitor and with a Caltrac Activity Monitor. Thirty-five children (ages 9-11 years) were monitored on 3 different school days with all 3 instruments. The Tritrac was moderately correlated with the heart rate monitor (r = .58) and highly correlated with the Caltrac monitor (r = .88). By taking advantage of the minute-by-minute timing capability of the Tritrac and the heart rate monitors, it was discovered that the correlations between these instruments were highest during free play situations (lunch/recess, recess, after school) and were lower when activity was more limited (class time) or structured (physical education). The ability of the Tritrac to assess activity on a minute-by-minute basis may greatly enhance its overall utility.

Validation of criterion-referenced standards for tests of arm and shoulder girdle strength and endurance.

The purpose of this study was to establish criterion-referenced standards for selected tests of arm and shoulder girdle strength and endurance for college females. Several popular tests of arm and shoulder girdle strength and endurance were administered to equal numbers of trained and untrained college females (N = 92) to generate data for the analysis. The contrasting groups method (Berk, 1976; Safrit & Wood, 1990) yielded the following criterion cutoff scores that classified college females as trained or untrained on the basis of regular upper arm and shoulder girdle resistance training: pull-ups = .5 repetitions (reps), 90 degrees push-ups = 16 reps, flexed arm hang = 5 s, seated chest press = 24.5 kg, seated biceps curl = 16.4 kg, seated lat pull (latissimus dorsi pull-down) = 38.2 kg, absolute strength index = 86.4 kg, and relative strength index = .6 kg per kg of body weight. Cross-validation of the standards on an independent sample of college females (N = 112) suggested stability of the cutoff scores for pull-ups, flexed arm hang, and relative strength.

Are American children and youth fit?

We analyzed data from the National School Population Fitness Survey (Reiff et al., 1986) and data collected by the authors of the original study to assess the fitness of American children and youth based on the results of additional analyses. We then compared the numbers of children and youth meeting norm-referenced standards to numbers meeting recently adopted criterion-referenced health (CRH) standards for individual test items in the FITNESSGRAM (Institute for Aerobics Research, 1987) and AAHPERD Physical Best (AAHPERD, 1988) test batteries. The number of children and youth meeting CRH standards for multiple items in a test battery was also determined. Finally, data were analyzed to determine if changes in fitness have occurred among American children and youth over recent decades. Our results suggest that, with the exception of measures of arm and shoulder girdle strength/endurance, more children and youth meet criterion-referenced health standards than norm-referenced standards (50th percentile) and the majority of American children and youth meet CRH standards for individual test items. However, the majority of American children and youth cannot meet the CRH standards for a battery of items for either of the two batteries studied. A second look at decade to decade comparisons of fitness produced evidence that questions the idea that youth are less fit now than in previous years.

Youth fitness testing: the effect of percentile-based evaluative feedback on intrinsic motivation.

This study was a test of Deci and Ryan's (1985) cognitive evaluation theory in a fitness testing situation. More specifically, it was a test of Proposition 2 of that theory, which posits that external events that increase or decrease perceived competence will increase or decrease intrinsic motivation. Seventh and eighth grade schoolchildren (N = 105) volunteered for an experiment that was ostensibly to collect data on a new youth fitness test (the Illinois Agility Run). After two untimed practice runs, a specially adapted version of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) was administered as a pretest of intrinsic motivation. Two weeks later when subjects ran again, they were apparently electronically timed. In reality, the subjects were given bogus feedback. Subjects in a positive feedback condition were told their scores were above the 80th percentile, while those in a negative feedback condition were told their scores were below the 20th percentile. Those in a control condition received no feedback. The IMI was again administered to the subjects after their runs. Multivariate and subsequent univariate tests were significant for all four subscale dependent variables (perceived interest-enjoyment, competence, effort, and pressure-tension). Positive feedback enhanced all aspects of intrinsic motivation, whereas negative feedback decreased them. In a further test of cognitive evaluation theory, path analysis results supported the prediction that perceived competence would mediate changes in the other IMI subscales. Taken together, these results clearly support cognitive evaluation theory and also may have important implications regarding motivation for those who administer youth fitness tests.

Effects of fitness test type, teacher, and gender on exercise intrinsic motivation and physical self-worth.

This study compared effects on exercise intrinsic motivation and physical self-worth of taking either the President's Challenge or the Fitnessgram fitness test battery. Three teachers administered the battery to seventh and eighth grade students (N = 370). The only significant effect involving fitness test type on intrinsic motivation was a test-teacher-gender interaction on the interest-enjoyment subscale of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI). Main effects occurred for gender on intrinsic motivation and physical self-worth (PSW). Finally, using a Fitness Level x Gender x Fitness Test Type design, a main effect occurred for fitness level on all four IMI subscales, and also on PSW. While results supported the construct validity of IMI and PSW scales, they did not support the theory-based premise that fitness test batteries would produce different motivational and self-perception outcomes. Results are discussed with reference to the limitations and delimitations of the field-based study.

Fitness awards: do they accomplish their intended objectives?

Abstract Considerable attention has recently been focused on awards as a means of motivating children and youth to take fitness tests and to become physically active. This research was conducted to determine the number of youth who actually achieve standards for earning the various fitness awards, the extent to which award earners are successful in achieving other recognition for physical performance, and the relative contribution of various fitness components to earning fitness awards. A total of 1, 774 youths (1,227 males and 547 females) ranging in age from 14 to 17 served as subjects in the study. Subjects completed items commonly included in national fitness test batteries, as well as a questionnaire indicating the extent of their athletic accomplishments. Results indicate that very few subjects met criteria for earning fitness awards, and those who did meet these criteria also received recognition for success in athletics. Further, those subjects who met award criteria had discriminant function profiles characterized by power, agility, and speed. These profiles were effective in classifying, and thus predicting, which subjects would be successful in earning awards. Questions should be raised about the motivational effectiveness of awards based on exclusive normative standards since these awards go primarily to those with athletic prowess and motor fitness.

Physical education and its role in school health promotion.

In this article, the authors promote the concept of health-oriented physical education, discuss professional standards, examine the current status of physical education programs, and discuss trends affecting physical education. Recommendations to make physical education more effective are provided.

Eating Disorders Among Female Athletes.

In brief: Research has indicated that 4% to 19% of female college students have eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa, anorexia athletica, or bulimia. To determine the extent to which preoccupation with weight and tendencies toward eating disorders are problems among female athletes, we analyzed the responses to a questionnaire completed by 168 college women-101 nonathletes, 35 athletes whose sports emphasize leanness, and 32 athletes whose sports do not emphasize leanness. The results showed that 6% of the nonathletes, 20% of the athletes in sports that emphasize leanness, and 10% of all the athletes were either exceptionally preoccupied with weight or had tendencies toward eating disorders.

Flexibility.

The information presented in this article is intended to make the reader aware of the most current research on the topic of flexibility and to make some practical suggestions for planning effective programs for developing flexibility in athletes. Though additional research needs to be done, we have enough knowledge to plan sound programs for reducing the incidence of injury and for promoting optimal performance among athletes in all sports. References for exercise selection and testing, as well as for documentation of the materials presented in this article are provided on the following pages.