The nuclear localization sequence and C-terminus of parathyroid hormone-related protein regulate normal pancreatic islet development and function.

Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) is a pleiotropic hormone essential for morphogenesis, tissue differentiation, as well as cell regulation and function. PTHrP is expressed by pancreatic beta cells which are responsible for insulin secretion. Previous studies have reported that N-terminal PTHrP stimulated proliferation in beta cells in rodents. We have developed a knockin mouse model (PTHrP Δ/Δ) lacking the C-terminal and nuclear localization sequence (NLS) of PTHrP. These mice die at ∼day 5, are severely stunted in growth, weigh 54% less than control mice at day 1-2 and eventually fail to grow. PTHrP Δ/Δ mice are also hypoinsulinemic and hypoglycemic yet have nutrient intake proportional to size. To characterize the pancreatic islets in these mice, islets (∼10-20) were isolated from 2 to 5 day-old-mice using collagenase digestion. Islets from PTHrP Δ/Δ mice were smaller in size but secreted more insulin than littermate controls. PTHrP Δ/Δ and control mice islets were exposed to various glucose concentrations and intracellular calcium, the trigger for insulin release, was elevated for glucose concentrations of 8-20 mM. Immunofluorescence staining showed less glucagon-stained area in islets from PTHrP Δ/Δ mice (∼250 µm2) compared to islets from control mice (∼900 µm2), and ELISA confirmed there was reduced glucagon content. These data collectively demonstrate increased insulin secretion and reduced glucagon at the islet level, which may contribute to the observed hypoglycemia and early death in PTHrP Δ/Δ mice. Thus, the C-terminus and NLS of PTHrP are crucial to life, including regulation of glucose homeostasis and islet function.

The use of synchrotron X-ray fluorescent imaging to study distribution and content of elements in chemically fixed single cells: a case study using mouse pancreatic beta-cells.

Synchrotron X-ray fluorescence microscopy (SXRF) presents a valuable opportunity to study the metallome of single cells because it simultaneously provides high-resolution subcellular distribution and quantitative cellular content of multiple elements. Different sample preparation techniques have been used to preserve cells for observations with SXRF, with a goal to maintain fidelity of the cellular metallome. In this case study, mouse pancreatic beta-cells have been preserved with optimized chemical fixation. We show that cell-to-cell variability is normal in the metallome of beta-cells due to heterogeneity and should be considered when interpreting SXRF data. In addition, we determined the impact of several immunofluorescence (IF) protocols on metal distribution and quantification in chemically fixed beta-cells and found that the metallome of beta-cells was not well preserved for quantitative analysis. However, zinc and iron qualitative analysis could be performed after IF with certain limitations. To help minimize metal loss using samples that require IF, we describe a novel IF protocol that can be used with chemically fixed cells after the completion of SXRF.

Similarities in Calcium Oscillations Between Neonatal Mouse Islets and Mature Islets Exposed to Chronic Hyperglycemia.

Pulsatility is important to islet function. As islets mature into fully developed insulin-secreting micro-organs, their ability to produce oscillatory intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) patterns in response to glucose also matures. In this study, we measured [Ca2+]i using fluorescence imaging to characterize oscillations from neonatal mice on postnatal (PN) days 0, 4, and 12 in comparison to adult islets. Under substimulatory (3-mM) glucose levels, [Ca2+]i was low and quiescent for adult islets as expected, as well as for PN day 12 islets. In contrast, one-third of islets on PN day 0 and 4 displayed robust [Ca2+]i oscillations in low glucose. In stimulatory glucose (11 mM) conditions, oscillations were present on all neonatal days but differed from patterns in adults. By PN day 12, [Ca2+]i oscillations were approaching characteristics of fully developed islets. The immature response pattern of neonatal islets was due, at least in part, to differences in adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP)-sensitive K+-channel activity estimated by [Ca2+]i responses to KATP channel agents diazoxide and tolbutamide. Neonatal [Ca2+]i patterns were also strikingly similar to patterns observed in mature islets exposed to hyperglycemic conditions (20 mM glucose for 48 hours): elevated [Ca2+]i and oscillations in low glucose along with reduced pulse mass in high glucose. Since a hallmark of diabetic islets is dedifferentiation, we propose that diabetic islets display features of "reverse maturation," demonstrating similar [Ca2+]i dynamics as neonatal islets. Pulsatility is thus an important emergent feature of neonatal islets. Our findings may provide insight into reversing ß-cell dedifferentiation and to producing better functioning ß cells from pluripotent stem cells.

Synchrotron fluorescence imaging of individual mouse beta-cells reveals changes in zinc, calcium, and iron in a model of low-grade inflammation.

Pancreatic beta-cells synthesize and secrete insulin maintaining an organism's energy homeostasis. In humans, beta-cell dysfunction and death contribute to the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Although the causes of beta-cell dysfunction are complex, obesity-induced low-grade systemic inflammation plays a role. For example, obese individuals exhibiting increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-1beta have a higher risk of beta-cell dysfunction and T2D. Interestingly, obesity-induced inflammation changes the expression of several cellular metal regulating genes, prompting this study to examine changes in the beta-cell metallome after exposure to proinflammatory-cytokines. Primary mouse beta-cells were exposed to a combination of IL-6 and IL-1beta for 48 hours, were chemically fixed and imaged by synchrotron X-ray fluorescent microscopy. Quantitative analysis showed a surprising 2.4-fold decrease in the mean total cellular content of zinc from 158 ± 57.7 femtograms (fg) to 65.7 ± 29.7 fg; calcium decreased from 216 ± 67.4 to 154.3 ± 68.7 fg (control vs. cytokines, respectively). The mean total cellular iron content slightly increased from 30.4 ± 12.2 to 47.2 ± 36.4 fg after cytokine treatment; a sub-population of cells (38%) exhibited larger increases of iron density. Changes in the subcellular distributions of zinc and calcium were observed after cytokine exposure. Beta-cells contained numerous iron puncta that accumulated still more iron after exposure to cytokines. These findings provide evidence that exposure to low levels of cytokines is sufficient to cause changes in the total cellular content and/or subcellular distribution of several metals known to be critical for normal beta-cell function.

The Capacity to Secrete Insulin Is Dose-Dependent to Extremely High Glucose Concentrations: A Key Role for Adenylyl Cyclase.

Insulin secretion is widely thought to be maximally stimulated in glucose concentrations of 16.7-to-30 mM (300-to-540 mg/dL). However, insulin secretion is seldom tested in hyperglycemia exceeding these levels despite the Guinness World Record being 147.6 mM (2656 mg/dL). We investigated how islets respond to 1-h exposure to glucose approaching this record. Insulin secretion from human islets at 12 mM glucose intervals dose-dependently increased until at least 72 mM glucose. Murine islets in 84 mM glucose secreted nearly double the insulin as in 24 mM (p < 0.001). Intracellular calcium was maximally stimulated in 24 mM glucose despite a further doubling of insulin secretion in higher glucose, implying that insulin secretion above 24 mM occurs through amplifying pathway(s). Increased osmolarity of 425-mOsm had no effect on insulin secretion (1-h exposure) or viability (48-h exposure) in murine islets. Murine islets in 24 mM glucose treated with a glucokinase activator secreted as much insulin as islets in 84 mM glucose, indicating that glycolytic capacity exists above 24 mM. Using an incretin mimetic and an adenylyl cyclase activator in 24 mM glucose enhanced insulin secretion above that observed in 84 mM glucose while adenylyl cyclase inhibitor reduced stimulatory effects. These results highlight the underestimated ability of islets to secrete insulin proportionally to extreme hyperglycemia through adenylyl cyclase activity.

Loss of growth hormone signaling in the mouse germline or in adulthood reduces islet mass and alters islet function with notable sex differences.

In the endocrine pancreas, growth hormone (GH) is known to promote pancreatic islet growth and insulin secretion. In this study, we show that GH receptor (GHR) loss in the germline and in adulthood impacts islet mass in general but more profoundly in male mice. GHR knockout (GHRKO) mice have enhanced insulin sensitivity and low circulating insulin. We show that the total cross-sectional area of isolated islets (estimated islet mass) was reduced by 72% in male but by only 29% in female GHRKO mice compared with wild-type controls. Also, islets from GHRKO mice secreted ∼50% less glucose-stimulated insulin compared with size-matched islets from wild-type mice. We next used mice with a floxed Ghr gene to knock down the GHR in adult mice at 6 mo of age (6mGHRKO) and examined the impact on glucose and islet metabolism. By 12 mo of age, female 6mGHRKO mice had increased body fat and reduced islet mass but had no change in glucose tolerance or insulin sensitivity. However, male 6mGHRKO mice had nearly twice as much body fat, substantially reduced islet mass, and enhanced insulin sensitivity, but no change in glucose tolerance. Despite large losses in islet mass, glucose-stimulated insulin secretion from isolated islets was not significantly different between male 6mGHRKO and controls, whereas isolated islets from female 6mGHRKO mice showed increased glucose-stimulated insulin release. Our findings demonstrate the importance of GH to islet mass throughout life and that unique sex-specific adaptations to the loss of GH signaling allow mice to maintain normal glucose metabolism.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Growth hormone (GH) is important for more than just growth. GH helps to maintain pancreatic islet mass and insulin secretion throughout life. Sex-specific adaptations to the loss of GH signaling allow mice to maintain normal glucose regulation despite losing islet mass.

A Practical Guide to Rodent Islet Isolation and Assessment Revisited.

Insufficient insulin secretion is a key component of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Since insulin is released by the islets of Langerhans, obtaining viable and functional islets is critical for research and transplantation. The effective and efficient isolation of these small islands of endocrine cells from the sea of exocrine tissue that is the rest of the pancreas is not necessarily simple or quick. Choosing and administering the digestive enzyme, separation of the islets from acinar tissue, and culture of islets are all things that must be considered. The purpose of this review is to provide a history of the development of islet isolation procedures and to serve as a practical guide to rodent islet research for newcomers to islet biology. We discuss key elements of mouse islet isolation including choosing collagenase, the digestion process, purification of islets using a density gradient, and islet culture conditions. In addition, this paper reviews techniques for assessing islet viability and function such as visual assessment, glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and intracellular calcium measurements. A detailed protocol is provided that describes a common method our laboratory uses to obtain viable and functional mouse islets for in vitro study. This review thus provides a strong foundation for successful procurement and purification of high-quality mouse islets for research purposes.

Postnatal maturation of calcium signaling in islets of Langerhans from neonatal mice.

Pancreatic islet cells develop mature physiological responses to glucose and other fuels postnatally. In this study, we used fluorescence imaging techniques to measure changes in intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) to compare islets isolated from mice on postnatal days 0, 4, and 12 with islets from adult CD-1 mice. In addition, we used publicly available RNA-sequencing data to compare expression levels of key genes in ß-cell physiology with [Ca2+]i data across these ages. We show that islets isolated from mice on postnatal day 0 displayed elevated [Ca2+]i in basal glucose (≤4 mM) but lower [Ca2+]i responses to stimulation by 12-20 mM glucose compared to adult. Neonatal islets displayed more adult-like [Ca2+]i in basal glucose by day 4 but continued to show lower [Ca2+]i responses to 16 and 20 mM glucose stimulation up to at least day 12. A right shift in glucose sensing (EC50) correlated with lower fragment-per-kilobase-of-transcript-per-million-reads-mapped (FPKM) of Slc2a2 (glut2) and Actn3 and increased FPKM for Galk1 and Nupr1. Differences in [Ca2+]i responses to additional stimuli were also observed. Calcium levels in the endoplasmic reticulum were elevated on day 0 but became adult-like by day 4, which corresponded with reduced expression in Atp2a2 (SERCA2) and novel K+-channel Ktd17, increased expression of Pml, Wfs1, Thada, and Herpud1, and basal [Ca2+]i maturing to adult levels. Ion-channel activity also matured rapidly, but RNA sequencing data mining did not yield strong leads. In conclusion, the maturation of islet [Ca2+]i signaling is complex and multifaceted; several possible gene targets were identified that may participate in this process.

Isolation and Assessment of Pancreatic Islets Versus Dispersed Beta Cells: A Straightforward Approach to Examine Cell-Cell Communication.

Islets of Langerhans, found in the pancreas, are microorgans essential for glucose homeostasis within the body. Many cells are found with an islet, such as beta cells (~70%), alpha cells (~20%), delta cells (~5%), F cells (~4%), and epsilon cells (1%), each with its own unique function. To better understand the roles of these cells and how cell communication alters their function, several techniques have been established such as islet isolation and beta cell dispersion. Here we describe how to isolate primary rodent islets, disperse pancreatic islets, measure intracellular calcium, and use immunofluorescent staining to distinguish beta cells and alpha cells.

Chronic stimulation induces adaptive potassium channel activity that restores calcium oscillations in pancreatic islets in vitro.

Insulin pulsatility is important to hepatic response in regulating blood glucose. Growing evidence suggests that insulin-secreting pancreatic ß-cells can adapt to chronic disruptions of pulsatility to rescue this physiologically important behavior. We determined the time scale for adaptation and examined potential ion channels underlying it. We induced the adaptation both by chronic application of the ATP-sensitive K+ [K(ATP)] channel blocker tolbutamide and by application of the depolarizing agent potassium chloride (KCl). Acute application of tolbutamide without pretreatment results in elevated Ca2+ as measured by fura-2AM and the loss of endogenous pulsatility. We show that after chronic exposure to tolbutamide (12-24 h), Ca2+ oscillations occur with subsequent acute tolbutamide application. The same experiment was conducted with potassium chloride (KCl) to directly depolarize the ß-cells. Once again, following chronic exposure to the cell stimulator, the islets produced Ca2+ oscillations when subsequently exposed to tolbutamide. These experiments suggest that it is the chronic stimulation, and not tolbutamide desensitization, that is responsible for the adaptation that rescues oscillatory ß-cell activity. This compensatory response also causes islet glucose sensitivity to shift rightward following chronic tolbutamide treatment. Mathematical modeling shows that a small increase in the number of K(ATP) channels in the membrane is one adaptation mechanism that is compatible with the data. To examine other compensatory mechanisms, pharmacological studies provide support that Kir2.1 and TEA-sensitive channels play some role. Overall, this investigation demonstrates ß-cell adaptability to overstimulation, which is likely an important mechanism for maintaining glucose homeostasis in the face of chronic stimulation.

Intact pancreatic islets and dispersed beta-cells both generate intracellular calcium oscillations but differ in their responsiveness to glucose.

Pancreatic islets produce pulses of insulin and other hormones that maintain normal glucose homeostasis. These micro-organs possess exquisite glucose-sensing capabilities, allowing for precise changes in pulsatile insulin secretion in response to small changes in glucose. When communication among these cells is disrupted, precision glucose sensing falters. We measured intracellular calcium patterns in 6-mM-steps between 0 and 16 mM glucose, and also more finely in 2-mM-steps from 8 to 12 mM glucose, to compare glucose sensing systematically among intact islets and dispersed islet cells derived from the same mouse pancreas in vitro. The calcium activity of intact islets was uniformly low (quiescent) below 4 mM glucose and active above 8 mM glucose, whereas dispersed beta-cells displayed a broader activation range (2-to-10 mM). Intact islets exhibited calcium oscillations with 2-to-5-min periods, yet beta-cells exhibited longer 7-10 min periods. In every case, intact islets showed changes in activity with each 6-mM-glucose step, whereas dispersed islet cells displayed a continuum of calcium responses ranging from islet-like patterns to stable oscillations unaffected by changes in glucose concentration. These differences were also observed for 2-mM-glucose steps. Despite the diversity of dispersed beta-cell responses to glucose, the sum of all activity produced a glucose dose-response curve that was surprisingly similar to the curve for intact islets, arguing against the importance of "hub cells" for function. Beta-cells thus retain many of the features of islets, but some are more islet-like than others. Determining the molecular underpinnings of these variations could be valuable for future studies of stem-cell-derived beta-cell therapies.

Comparing methods to normalize insulin secretion shows the process may not be needed.

Glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) is a well-accepted method to investigate the physiological and pathophysiological function of islets. However, there is little consensus about which method is best for normalizing and presenting GSIS data. In this study, we evaluated the sufficiency of islet area, total protein, total DNA, and total insulin content as parameters to normalize GSIS data. First, we tested if there is a linear correlation between each parameter and the number of islets (10, 20, 30, and 40 islets). Islet area, total protein, and insulin content produced excellent linear correlations with islet number (R2 >0.9 for each) from the same islet material. Insulin secretion in 11mM glucose also correlated reasonably well for islet area (R2=0.69), protein (R2=0.49), and insulin content (R2=0.58). DNA content was difficult to reliably measure and was excluded from additional comparisons. We next measured GSIS for 18 replicates of 20 islets each, measuring 3mM and 11mM glucose to calculate the stimulation index and to compare each normalization parameter. Using these similar islet masses for each replicate, none of the parameters produced linear correlations with GSIS (R2<0.05), suggesting that inherent differences in GSIS dominate small differences in islet mass. We conclude that when comparing GSIS for islets of reasonably similar size (<50% variance), normalization does not improve the representation of GSIS data. Normalization may be beneficial when substantial differences in islet mass are involved. In such situations, we suggest that using islet cross-sectional area is superior to other commonly used techniques for normalizing GSIS data.

Reducing Glucokinase Activity Restores Endogenous Pulsatility and Enhances Insulin Secretion in Islets From db/db Mice.

An early sign of islet failure in type 2 diabetes (T2D) is the loss of normal patterns of pulsatile insulin release. Disruptions in pulsatility are associated with a left shift in glucose sensing that can cause excessive insulin release in low glucose (relative hyperinsulinemia, a hallmark of early T2D) and ß-cell exhaustion, leading to inadequate insulin release during hyperglycemia. Our hypothesis was that reducing excessive glucokinase activity in diabetic islets would improve their function. Isolated mouse islets were exposed to glucose and varying concentrations of the glucokinase inhibitor d-mannoheptulose (MH) to examine changes in intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) and insulin secretion. Acutely exposing islets from control CD-1 mice to MH in high glucose (20 mM) dose dependently reduced the size of [Ca2+]i oscillations detected by fura-2 acetoxymethyl. Glucokinase activation in low glucose (3 mM) had the opposite effect. We then treated islets from male and female db/db mice (age, 4 to 8 weeks) and heterozygous controls overnight with 0 to 10 mM MH to determine that 1 mM MH produced optimal oscillations. We then used 1 mM MH overnight to measure [Ca2+]i and insulin simultaneously in db/db islets. MH restored oscillations and increased insulin secretion. Insulin secretion rates correlated with MH-induced increases in amplitude of [Ca2+]i oscillations (R2 = 0.57, P < 0.01, n = 10) but not with mean [Ca2+]i levels in islets (R2 = 0.05, not significant). Our findings show that correcting glucose sensing can restore proper pulsatility to diabetic islets and improved pulsatility correlates with enhanced insulin secretion.

Metformin Inhibits Mouse Islet Insulin Secretion and Alters Intracellular Calcium in a Concentration-Dependent and Duration-Dependent Manner near the Circulating Range.

Metformin is considered the first-line treatment for type 2 diabetes. While metformin primarily increases insulin sensitivity, evidence also suggests that metformin affects the activity of insulin-secreting pancreatic islets. This study was designed to systematically examine the direct effects of metformin by measuring insulin secretion and the kinetics of the calcium response to glucose stimulation in isolated mouse islets using varying concentrations (20 µM, 200 µM, and 1 mM) and durations (~1, 2, and 3 days) of metformin exposure. We observed both concentration- and duration-dependent inhibitory effects of metformin. Concentrations as little as 20 µM (nearing circulating therapeutic levels) were sufficient to reduce insulin secretion following 3-day treatment. Concentrations of 200 µM and 1 mM produced more pronounced effects more rapidly. With 1 mM metformin, islets showed severe impairments in calcium handling, inhibition of insulin secretion, and increased cell death. No stimulatory effects of metformin were observed for any experimental endpoint. We conclude that the direct effects of metformin on islets are inhibitory at near-physiological concentrations. Beneficial effects of metformin observed on islets under various stressors may occur by "resting" fatigued cellular processes. However, metformin may have unintended consequences on normally functioning islets within the circulating range that require further evaluation.

Islet Hypersensitivity to Glucose Is Associated With Disrupted Oscillations and Increased Impact of Proinflammatory Cytokines in Islets From Diabetes-Prone Male Mice.

Pulsatile insulin release is the primary means of blood glucose regulation. The loss of pulsatility is thought to be an early marker and possible factor in developing type 2 diabetes. Another early adaptation in islet function to compensate for obesity is increased glucose sensitivity (left shift) associated with increased basal insulin release. We provide evidence that oscillatory disruptions may be linked with overcompensation (glucose hypersensitivity) in islets from diabetes-prone mice. We isolated islets from male 4- to 5-week-old (prediabetic) and 10- to 12-week-old (diabetic) leptin-receptor-deficient (db/db) mice and age-matched heterozygous controls. After an overnight incubation in media with 11 mM glucose, we measured islet intracellular calcium in 5, 8, 11, or 15 mM glucose. Islets from heterozygous 10- to 12-week-old mice were quiescent in 5 mM glucose and displayed oscillations with increasing amplitude and/or duration in 8, 11, and 15 mM glucose, respectively. Islets from diabetic 10- to 12-week-old mice, in contrast, showed robust oscillations in 5 mM glucose that declined with increasing glucose. Similar trends were observed at 4-5-weeks of age. A progressive left shift in maximal insulin release was also observed in islets as db/db mice aged. Reducing glucokinase activity with 1 mM D-mannoheptulose restored oscillations in 11 mM glucose. Finally, overnight low-dose cytokine exposure negatively impacted oscillations preferentially in high glucose in diabetic islets compared with heterozygous controls. Our findings suggest the following: 1) islets from frankly diabetic mice can produce oscillations, 2) elevated sensitivity to glucose prevents diabetic mouse islets from producing oscillations in normal postprandial (11-15 mM glucose) conditions, and 3) hypersensitivity to glucose may magnify stress effects from inflammation or other sources.

Stress-induced dissociations between intracellular calcium signaling and insulin secretion in pancreatic islets.

In healthy pancreatic islets, glucose-stimulated changes in intracellular calcium ([Ca(2+)]i) provide a reasonable reflection of the patterns and relative amounts of insulin secretion. We report that [Ca(2+)]i in islets under stress, however, dissociates with insulin release in different ways for different stressors. Islets were exposed for 48h to a variety of stressors: cytokines (low-grade inflammation), 28mM glucose (28G, glucotoxicity), free fatty acids (FFAs, lipotoxicity), thapsigargin (ER stress), or rotenone (mitochondrial stress). We then measured [Ca(2+)]i and insulin release in parallel studies. Islets exposed to all stressors except rotenone displayed significantly elevated [Ca(2+)]i in low glucose, however, increased insulin secretion was only observed for 28G due to increased nifedipine-sensitive calcium-channel flux. Following 3-11mM glucose stimulation, all stressors substantially reduced the peak glucose-stimulated [Ca(2+)]i response (first phase). Thapsigargin and cytokines also substantially impacted aspects of calcium influx and ER calcium handling. Stressors did not significantly impact insulin secretion in 11mM glucose for any stressor, although FFAs showed a borderline reduction, which contributed to a significant decrease in the stimulation index (11:3mM glucose) observed for FFAs and also for 28G. We also clamped [Ca(2+)]i using 30mM KCl+250µM diazoxide to test the amplifying pathway. Only rotenone-treated islets showed a robust increase in 3-11mM glucose-stimulated insulin secretion under clamped conditions, suggesting that low-level mitochondrial stress might activate the metabolic amplifying pathway. We conclude that different stressors dissociate [Ca(2+)]i from insulin secretion differently: ER stressors (thapsigargin, cytokines) primarily affect [Ca(2+)]i but not conventional insulin secretion and 'metabolic' stressors (FFAs, 28G, rotenone) impacted insulin secretion.

Increased serum CXCL1 and CXCL5 are linked to obesity, hyperglycemia, and impaired islet function.

Proinflammatory cytokines are thought to play a significant role in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes (T2D) and are elevated in the circulation even before the onset of the disease. However, the full complement of cytokines involved in the development of T2D is not known. In this study, 32 serum cytokines were measured from diabetes-prone BKS.Cg-m+/+Lepr(db)/J (db/db) mice and heterozygous age-matched control mice at 5 weeks (non-diabetic/non-obese), 6-7 weeks (transitional-to-diabetes), or 11 weeks (hyperglycemic/obese) and then correlated with body weight, blood glucose, and fat content. Among these 32 cytokines, C-X-C motif ligand 1 (CXCL1) showed the greatest increase (+78%) in serum levels between db/db mice that were hyperglycemic (blood glucose: 519±23 mg/dl, n=6) and those that were non-hyperglycemic (193±13 mg/dl, n=8). Similarly, increased CXCL1 (+68%) and CXCL5 (+40%) were associated with increased obesity in db/db mice; note that these effects could not be entirely separated from age. We then examined whether islets could be a source of these chemokines. Exposure to cytokines mimicking low-grade systemic inflammation (10 pg/ml IL1ß+20 pg/ml IL6) for 48 h upregulated islet CXCL1 expression by 53±3-fold and CXCL5 expression by 83±10-fold (n=4, P<0.001). Finally, overnight treatment with the combination of CXCL1 and CXCL5 at serum levels was sufficient to produce a significant decrease in the peak calcium response to glucose stimulation, suggesting reduced islet function. Our findings demonstrated that CXCL1 and CXCL5 i) are increased in the circulation with the onset of T2D, ii) are produced by islets under stress, and iii) synergistically affect islet function, suggesting that these chemokines participate in the pathogenesis of T2D.

Circulating levels of IL-1B+IL-6 cause ER stress and dysfunction in islets from prediabetic male mice.

Elevated levels of circulating proinflammatory cytokines are associated with obesity and increased risk of type 2 diabetes, but the mechanism is unknown. We tested whether proinflammatory cytokines IL-1B+IL-6 at low picogram per milliliter concentrations (consistent with serum levels) could directly trigger pancreatic islet dysfunction. Overnight exposure to IL-1B+IL-6 in islets isolated from normal mice and humans disrupted glucose-stimulated intracellular calcium responses; cytokine-induced effects were more severe among islets from prediabetic db/db mice that otherwise showed no signs of dysfunction. IL-1B+IL-6 exposure reduced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) calcium storage, activated ER stress responses (Nos2, Bip, Atf4, and Ddit3 [CHOP]), impaired glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, and increased cell death only in islets from prediabetic db/db mice. Furthermore, we found increased serum levels of IL-1B and IL-6 in diabetes-prone mice at an age before hyperglycemia was exhibited, suggesting that low-grade systemic inflammation develops early in the disease process. In addition, we implanted normal outbred and inbred mice with subcutaneous osmotic mini-pumps containing IL-1B+IL-6 to mimic the serum increases found in prediabetic db/db mice. Both IL-1B and IL-6 were elevated in serum from cytokine-pump mice, but glucose tolerance and blood glucose levels did not differ from controls. However, when compared with controls, isolated islets from cytokine-pump mice showed deficiencies in calcium handling and insulin secretion that were similar to observations with islets exposed to cytokines in vitro. These findings provide proof of principle that low-grade systemic inflammation is present early in the development of type 2 diabetes and can trigger ER stress-mediated islet dysfunction that can lead to islet failure.

Salivary gland hypofunction induced by activation of innate immunity is dependent on type I interferon signaling.

BACKGROUND: Activation of innate immunity through polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid [poly(I:C)] causes acute salivary gland hypofunction. As a major consequence of poly(I:C) treatment is type I interferon (IFN) production, this study was undertaken to investigate their role in salivary gland dysfunction. METHODS: Different strains of mice deficient in either interferon alpha receptor (IFNAR1(-/-)) or IL-6(-/-), or IL-10(-/-), or EBI3(-/-) were treated with poly(I:C). Salivary gland function was determined by measuring pilocarpine-induced saliva volume. Gene expression levels were measured by real-time PCR. Ca(2+) mobilization studies were performed using ex-vivo acinar cells. RESULTS: A single injection of poly(I:C) rapidly induced salivary gland hypofunction in wild-type B6 mice (41% drop in saliva volumes compared to PBS-treated mice). In contrast, the loss of function in poly(I:C)-treated IFNAR(-/-) mice was only 9.6%. Gene expression analysis showed reduced levels of Il-6, Il-10, and Il-27 in submandibular glands of poly(I:C)-treated IFNAR(-/-) mice. While salivary gland dysfunction in poly(I:C)-treated IL-10(-/-) and EBI3(-/-) mice was comparable to wild-type mice, the IL-6(-/-) mice were more resistant, with only a 21% drop in function. Pilocarpine-induced Ca(2+) flux was significantly suppressed in acinar cells obtained from poly(I:C)-treated wild-type mice. CONCLUSIONS: Our data demonstrate that a combined action of type I IFNs and IL-6 contributes toward salivary gland hypofunction. This happens through interference with Ca(2+) mobilization within acinar cells. Thus, in acute viral infections and diseases like Sjögren's syndrome, elevated levels of type I IFNs and IL-6 can directly affect glandular function.

Vesicular nucleotide transporter-mediated ATP release regulates insulin secretion.

Extracellular ATP plays a critical role in regulating insulin secretion in pancreatic ß cells. The ATP released from insulin secretory vesicles has been proposed to be a major source of extracellular ATP. Currently, the mechanism by which ATP accumulates into insulin secretory granules remains elusive. In this study, the authors identified the expression of a vesicular nucleotide transporter (VNUT) in mouse pancreas, isolated mouse islets, and MIN6 cells, a mouse ß cell line. Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence revealed that VNUT colocalized extensively with insulin secretory granules. Functional studies showed that suppressing endogenous VNUT expression in ß cells by small hairpin RNA knockdown greatly reduced basal- and glucose-induced ATP release. Importantly, knocking down VNUT expression by VNUT small hairpin RNA in MIN6 cells and isolated mouse islets dramatically suppressed basal insulin release and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). Moreover, acute pharmacologic blockade of VNUT with Evans blue, a VNUT antagonist, greatly attenuated GSIS in a dose-dependent manner. Exogenous ATP treatment effectively reversed the insulin secretion defect induced by both VNUT knockdown and functional inhibition, indicating that VNUT-mediated ATP release is essential for maintaining normal insulin secretion. In contrast to VNUT knockdown, overexpression of VNUT in ß cells resulted in excessive ATP release and enhanced basal insulin secretion and GSIS. Elevated insulin secretion induced by VNUT overexpression was reversed by pharmacologic inhibition of P2X but not P2Y purinergic receptors. This study reveals VNUT is expressed in pancreatic ß cells and plays an essential and novel role in regulating insulin secretion through vesicular ATP release and extracellular purinergic signaling.