Deliberación pública en el marco de la respuesta a la pandemia por COVID-19: un análisis de la respuesta temprana en Colombia / Public deliberation in the context of the response to the COVID-19 pandemic: an analysis of the early response in Colombia

RESUMO La deliberación es deseable en el campo de la salud pública, incluso en escenarios de emergencia sanitaria, donde se deben tomar decisiones de manera rápida y con un alto grado de incertidumbre. Se realizó un análisis del proceso de toma de decisiones en los primeros meses de la llegada de la pandemia de COVID-19 a Colombia y en los meses alrededor del inicio de la vacunación, a la luz del concepto de deliberación pública y con énfasis en las decisiones del Gobierno Nacional relacionadas con el sector salud. Se llevó a cabo un estudio cualitativo de análisis de contenido, usando como fuente documentos de las páginas web de la Presidencia de la República de Colombia, del Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social y del Congreso de la República y páginas de organizaciones sociales, particularmente representativas de población vulnerable y organizaciones no gubernamentales. Los espacios deliberativos para la toma de decisiones relacionadas con el sector salud durante la pandemia en Colombia se limitaron a escenarios formales donde se privilegió la participación de expertos biomédicos y técnicos de entidades gubernamentales del nivel central. Es necesario incluir en los futuros planes de preparación para este tipo de emergencia escenarios con capacidad de deliberación pública.

ABSTRACT Deliberation is desirable in the public health field, even in emergency scenarios, where decisions must be made quickly and with a high uncertainty degree. An analysis of the decision-making process in the first months of the COVID-19 pandemic in Colombia and in the months around the start of vaccination was carried out, considering the concept of public deliberation and with emphasis on the decisions of the National Government related to the health sector. A qualitative study of content analysis was carried out, using as information source the documents from the web pages of the Presidency of the Republic of Colombia, the Ministry of Health, and the Congress of the Republic and pages of social organizations, particularly representative of the vulnerable population and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The deliberative spaces for decision-making related to the health sector during the pandemic in Colombia were limited to formal settings where the participation of biomedical experts and technicians from central government entities was privileged. It is necessary to include scenarios with a greater capacity for public deliberation in future preparedness plans for this type of emergency.

Maternal mortality in Colombia during the COVID-19 pandemic: time series and social inequities.

OBJECTIVE: The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic goes beyond morbidity and mortality from that disease. Increases in maternal mortality have also been described but have not been extensively studied to date. This study aimed to examine changes in maternal mortality and identify correlates and predictors of excess maternal mortality in Colombia during the pandemic. SETTING: Analysis of data from the national epidemiological surveillance databases of Colombia (Sivigila). PARTICIPANTS: Deaths among 6342 Colombian pregnant women who experienced complications associated with pregnancy, childbirth or the perperium during 2008-2020 were included in this study. For inequalities analysis, a subsample of 1055 women from this group who died in 2019 or 2020 years were analysed. METHODS: We collected data from the national surveillance system (Sivigila) on maternal mortality. Analysis was carried out in two stages, starting with a time series modelling using the Box-Jenkins approach. Data from Sivigila for 2008-2019 were used to establish a baseline of expected mortality levels. Both simple and complex inequality metrics, with the maternal mortality ratios (MMRs), were then calculated using the Multidimensional Poverty Index as a socioeconomic proxy. RESULTS: Maternal deaths in 2020 were 12.6% (95% CI -21.4% to 95.7%) higher than expected. These excess deaths were statistically significant in elevation for the months of July (97.4%, 95% CI 35.1% to 250.0%) and August (87.8%, 95% CI 30.5% to 220.8%). The MMR was nearly three times higher in the poorest municipalities compared with the most affluent communities in 2020. CONCLUSIONS: The COVID-19 pandemic had considerable impact on maternal health, not only by leading to increased deaths, but also by increasing social health inequity. Barriers to access and usage of essential health services are a challenge to achieving health-related Sustainable Development Goals.

Inequalities in health by regime of affiliation to the health system in events of obligatory notification, Colombia, 2015 / Desigualdades en salud según régimen de afiliación y eventos notificados al Sistema de Vigilancia (Sivigila) en Colombia, 2015

Introduction: Inequalities in the health field are caused by the differences in the social and economic conditions, that influence the disease risk and the measures taken to treat the disease. Objective: We aimed to estimate the social inequalities in health in Colombia, according to the type of affiliation to the health system as a proxy of socioeconomic status. Materials and methods: We conducted a retrospective descriptive analysis calculating incidence rates age and sex adjusted for all mandatory reporting events using the affiliation regime (subsidized and contributory) as a socioeconomic proxy. Estimates were made at departmental level for 2015. Social inequalities were calculated in terms of absolute and relative gaps. Results: We found social inequalities in the occurrence of mandatory reporting events in population affiliated to the Colombian subsidized regime (poor population). In this population, 82.31 cases of Plasmodium falciparum malaria per 100,000 affiliates were reported more than those reported in the contributory regime. Regarding the relative gap, belonging to the subsidized regime increased by 31.74 times the risk of dying from malnutrition in children under 5 years of age. Other events such as those related to sexual and reproductive health (maternal mortality, gestational syphilis and congenital syphilis); neglected diseases and communicable diseases related to poverty (leprosy and tuberculosis), also showed profound inequalities. Conclusion: In Colombia there are inequalities by regime of affiliation to the health system. Measured socioeconomic status was a predictor of increased morbidity and premature mortality.

Introducción. Las desigualdades en salud se generan por diferencias en las condiciones sociales y económicas, lo cual influye en el riesgo de enfermar y la forma de enfrentar la enfermedad. Objetivo. Evaluar las desigualdades sociales en salud en Colombia, utilizando el tipo de afiliación al sistema de salud como un parámetro representativo (proxy) de la condición socioeconómica. Materiales y métodos. Se trata de un análisis descriptivo y retrospectivo en el que se calcularon las tasas específicas de incidencia, ajustadas por edad y sexo, para eventos de notificación obligatoria, utilizando el régimen de afiliación (subsidiado o contributivo) como variable representativa del nivel socioeconómico. Las estimaciones se hicieron a nivel departamental para el 2015. Las desigualdades sociales se calcularon en términos de brechas absolutas y relativas. Resultados. Se evidencian desigualdades sociales en la ocurrencia de eventos de notificación obligatoria, las cuales desfavorecen a la población afiliada al régimen subsidiado. En esta población, se reportaron 82,31 casos más de malaria Plasmodium falciparum por 100.000 afiliados, que los notificados en el régimen contributivo. Respecto a la brecha relativa, el pertenecer al régimen subsidiado se asocia con un aumento de 31,74 veces del riesgo de morir por desnutrición en menores de cinco años. Otros eventos también presentaron profundas desigualdades, como los relacionados con la salud sexual y reproductiva (mortalidad materna, sífilis gestacional y sífilis congénita), las enfermedades infecciosas y las enfermedades transmisibles relacionadas con la pobreza (lepra y tuberculosis). Conclusión. El tipo de afiliación al Sistema General de Seguridad Social en Salud en Colombia es un buen indicador del nivel socioeconómico, y es un factor predictor de mayor morbilidad y mortalidad prematura asociada con los factores determinantes sociales de la salud.

El enfoque de género y la Ley 1448 en Colombia / The gender perspective and the 1448 Colombian law

El conflicto armado colombiano se extiende por todos rincones del país; en esa guerra la violencia de género encontró un lugar fértil. Este artículo analiza el enfoque de género a partir de los lineamientos de la Ley 1448 de 2011, y entrevistas con funcionarios estatales, es un análisis de las narrativas propias de estos y de texto de la norma, así como otras normas concomitantes que no solo reconocen el conflicto armado sino que le otorgan importancia necesaria a las afectaciones particulares a la mujer, sumado a esto se explora la aparición de la presencia estatal y el avance que fue necesario en la política pública en Colombia para el reconocimiento de más de 8.000.000 de víctimas del conflicto armado. Se describe la situación vulnerable de las mujeres en el conflicto armado, que ve la luz en el reconocimiento normativo de las afectaciones particulares a este grupo poblacional. Para concluir se explora la importancia para la construcción de nación del reconocimiento del conflicto armado colombiano en el gobierno de Juan Manuel Santos, así como para la construcción de un camino hacia la paz mediante las políticas de reparación, perdón, verdad y reconciliación.(AU)

The Colombian armed conflict extends to all corners of the country; in that war, gender violence found a fertile place. This article analyzes the gender perspective based on the guidelines of Law 1448 of 2011, and interviews with state officials, it is an analysis of the narratives of these and the text of the norm, as well as other concomitant norms that not only they recognize the armed conflict but give necessary importance to the particular affectations on woman, added to this the novelty State presence and the advance that was necessary in the public policy in Colombia for the recognition of more than 8,000,000 victims of the armed conflict. It describes the vulnerable situation of women in the armed conflict, which sees the light in the normative recognition of their particular affectations. To conclude, the importance of recognizing the Colombian armed conflictin the construction of a nation is explored, as well as for the construction of a path towards peace through policies of reparation, forgiveness, truth and reconciliation, a context that was built on Juan Manuel Santos government.(AU)

O conflito armado colombiano se estende a todos os cantos do país; nessa guerra, a violência de gênero encontrou um lugar fértil. O texto analisa a abordagem de gênero, que faz parte da Lei de Vítimas e Restituição de Terras, no país que é traçado pela geografia da violência, enquadrado nas diferenças entre urbano-rural, masculino-feminino, centro - periferia… Depois, analisa a chegada da presença do Estado e o significativo avanço das políticas públicas na Colômbia para dar lugar ao reconhecimento de mais de 8.000.000 de vítimas do conflito armado. A situação particular das mulheres no conflito armado é descrita pelo reconhecimento normativo das afetações particulares nesse grupo populacional, incluindo sua saúde mental. As conclusões expressam a importância que tem para a construção de uma nação e que o governo de Juan Manuel Santos reconheceu a existência de um conflito armado, para a construção de um caminho em direção à paz por meio de políticas de perdão, verdade e reconciliação.(AU)

Desigualdades en salud según régimen de afiliación y eventos notificados al Sistema de Vigilancia (Sivigila) en Colombia, 2015 / Inequalities in health by regime of affiliation to the health system in events of obligatory notification, Colombia, 2015

Introducción. Las desigualdades en salud se generan por diferencias en las condiciones sociales y económicas, lo cual influye en el riesgo de enfermar y la forma de enfrentar la enfermedad. Objetivo. Evaluar las desigualdades sociales en salud en Colombia, utilizando el tipo de afiliación al sistema de salud como un parámetro representativo (proxy) de la condición socioeconómica. Materiales y métodos. Se trata de un análisis descriptivo y retrospectivo en el que se calcularon las tasas específicas de incidencia, ajustadas por edad y sexo, para eventos de notificación obligatoria, utilizando el régimen de afiliación (subsidiado o contributivo) como variable representativa del nivel socioeconómico. Las estimaciones se hicieron a nivel departamental para el 2015. Las desigualdades sociales se calcularon en términos de brechas absolutas y relativas. Resultados. Se evidencian desigualdades sociales en la ocurrencia de eventos de notificación obligatoria, las cuales desfavorecen a la población afiliada al régimen subsidiado. En esta población, se reportaron 82,31 casos más de malaria Plasmodium falciparum por 100.000 afiliados, que los notificados en el régimen contributivo. Respecto a la brecha relativa, el pertenecer al régimen subsidiado se asocia con un aumento de 31,74 veces del riesgo de morir por desnutrición en menores de cinco años. Otros eventos también presentaron profundas desigualdades, como los relacionados con la salud sexual y reproductiva (mortalidad materna, sífilis gestacional y sífilis congénita), las enfermedades infecciosas y las enfermedades transmisibles relacionadas con la pobreza (lepra y tuberculosis). Conclusión. El tipo de afiliación al Sistema General de Seguridad Social en Salud en Colombia es un buen indicador del nivel socioeconómico, y es un factor predictor de mayor morbilidad y mortalidad prematura asociada con los factores determinantes sociales de la salud.

Introduction: Inequalities in the health field are caused by the differences in the social and economic conditions, that influence the disease risk and the measures taken to treat the disease. Objective: We aimed to estimate the social inequalities in health in Colombia, according to the type of affiliation to the health system as a proxy of socioeconomic status. Materials and methods: We conducted a retrospective descriptive analysis calculating incidence rates age and sex adjusted for all mandatory reporting events using the affiliation regime (subsidized and contributory) as a socioeconomic proxy. Estimates were made at departmental level for 2015. Social inequalities were calculated in terms of absolute and relative gaps. Results: We found social inequalities in the occurrence of mandatory reporting events in population affiliated to the Colombian subsidized regime (poor population). In this population, 82.31 cases of Plasmodium falciparum malaria per 100,000 affiliates were reported more than those reported in the contributory regime. Regarding the relative gap, belonging to the subsidized regime increased by 31.74 times the risk of dying from malnutrition in children under 5 years of age. Other events such as those related to sexual and reproductive health (maternal mortality, gestational syphilis and congenital syphilis); neglected diseases and communicable diseases related to poverty (leprosy and tuberculosis), also showed profound inequalities. Conclusion: In Colombia there are inequalities by regime of affiliation to the health system. Measured socioeconomic status was a predictor of increased morbidity and premature mortality.

Salud materna indígena en mujeres Nasa y Misak del Cauca, Colombia: tensiones, subordinación y diálogo intercultural entre dos sistemas médicos / Indigenous maternal health in women from Nasa and Misak ethnicities from Cauca, Colombia: tensions, subordination, and intercultural dialogue between two medical systems

Resumen En este texto se pretende avanzar en la comprensión de los elementos que configuran la relación entre madres Nasa y Misak del Cauca y los servicios de salud materna tradicional y occidental, desde un abordaje cualitativo que armonizó el modelo de construcción de sentido y la teoría fundamentada. Se identificó la forma cómo cada sistema médico define la salud, la enfermedad y la maternidad, que está reflejada en las prácticas y cuidados, siendo el parto el momento de mayores tensiones. Se han identificado patrones de relacionamiento entre los dos agentes del sistema médico. El sistema médico tradicional con bajo desarrollo propio y pérdida progresiva de valores culturales, así como el sistema médico occidental con la ausencia de servicios de salud apropiados culturalmente, dejan a las madres en un espacio de incertidumbre en el que no es posible realizar las prácticas tradicionales, ni acceder a los servicios propuestos por el sistema médico occidental.

Abstract This study sought to understand the components of the relationship between mothers from Nasa and Misak ethnicities from Cauca, Colombia, and both the indigenous and Western health care services for maternal health, through qualitative approach harmonizing the model of construction of meaning and grounded theory. Elements about health, illness and motherhood conceptualization inside each system were rescued. These elements are expressed in care practices, being the labor the moment of greatest tension. Patterns of relationships between actors of both medical systems were also identified. An indigenous health system with low development and progressive loss of values, in conjunction with a Western medical system without culturally appropriate health services, results in mothers in an environment of uncertainty where it is not possible to carry out traditional practices, nor having access to proper allopathic services.

Injuries due to fireworks use: A surveillance data analysis in Colombia, 2008-2013.

PURPOSE: To describe the injuries due to fireworks use in Colombia during the period 2008-2013 and to identify factors associated with hospitalization and death due to this cause. METHODS: A descriptive study from surveillance data was carried out. Incidence rates and relative risks were calculated. The incidence rate trend was modeled with a joint point regression model. Multivariate logistical models were implemented to identify the associated factors with hospitalization and mortality due to firework injuries. RESULTS: A total of 6585 people were reported to be injured by fireworks during the 2008-2013 period. An upward trend in the incidence rate during this period was observed, with an annual percentage of change of 28% (95% CI 27.7-28.3) during 2008-2011 and 3.5% (95% CI 3.0-3.9) during 2011-2013. The factors associated with hospitalization were injury occurrence at the workplace (odds ratio (OR) 2.62, 95% CI 1.97-3.47), storage (OR 2.40, 95% CI 1.54-3.73), transport (OR 1.63, 95% CI 1.20-2.21), multiple trauma (OR 1.49, 95% CI 1.31-1.70), and injury occurrence at home (OR 1.26, 95% CI 1.07-1.50). The factors associated with mortality were storage (OR 19.52, 95% CI 4.62-82.44), transport (OR 13.37, 95% CI 3.29-54.3), injury occurrence at the workplace (OR 4.88, 95% CI 1.69-14.13), and ethnicity (OR 3.37, 95% CI 1.12-10.12). CONCLUSION: These results provided information for revising the public policies and intersectorial interventions to reduce the avoidable burden due to firework injuries at all times and not just during the high injury occurrence season.

[Mortality by homicides in Colombia, 1998-2012].

INTRODUCTION: Homicide is a universal indicator of social violence with large public health consequences. OBJECTIVES: To describe mortality by homicides and to analyze its trends and geographic distribution in Colombia between 1998 and 2012. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a descriptive study of deaths by homicide in Colombia between 1998 and 2012 using official mortality databases and the population projections of the Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística, DANE. We calculated age- and sex-specific mortality rates, and we analyzed the geographical distribution of mean-adjusted homicide mortality rates at municipal level. RESULTS: Between 1998 and 2012, 331,470 homicides were reported in Colombia. The mean crude rate was 51.5 per 100,000 inhabitants: 95.9 in men and 8.2 in women. Since 2003, a decrease in the number of deaths and rates was observed; 91.9% of the victims were men and the highest mortality rates were reported in the 20-29 years old group. The most frequently involved mechanism was the firearm: Eight of 10 homicides in men, and seven of 10 homicides in women. Out of 1,122 municipalities, 186 were in the highest quintile, accumulating 50.1% of all deaths. CONCLUSIONS: In Colombia, homicides have been one of the leading causes of death with a trend towards reduction since 2002. Its geographical distribution has been heterogeneous. To continue addressing this public health issue we must recur to multidisciplinary analytical methodologies for a better understanding of the phenomenon.

Mortalidad por homicidios en Colombia, 1998-2012 / Mortality by homicides in Colombia, 1998-2012

Resumen Introducción. El homicidio es un indicador universal de violencia social con grandes consecuencias en salud pública. Objetivo. Describir la mortalidad por homicidios, y analizar su tendencia y su distribución geográfica en Colombia entre 1998 y 2012. Materiales y métodos. Se hizo un estudio descriptivo basado en la información de las bases de datos sobre mortalidad y las proyecciones de población del Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística, DANE. Se calcularon las tasas de mortalidad específica y ajustada por edad y sexo. Se analizó la distribución geográfica del promedio de tasas ajustadas a nivel municipal. Resultados. En Colombia se registraron 331.470 homicidios entre 1998 y 2012. La tasa cruda promedio fue de 51,5 por 100.000 habitantes: 95,9 en hombres y 8,2 en mujeres. A partir del 2003 se observó una disminución en el número de muertes y tasas de mortalidad. El 91,9 % de las víctimas fueron hombres. Las tasas de mortalidad más altas se observaron en el grupo de 20 a 29 años. El mecanismo más frecuentemente involucrado fue el arma de fuego: en ocho de cada diez homicidios en hombres y en siete de cada diez en mujeres. De los 1.122 municipios, 186 estaban en el quintil más alto y acumularon el 50,1 % de las defunciones. Conclusión. En Colombia los homicidios han sido una de las principales causas de muerte, con una distribución geográfica heterogénea y una tendencia hacia la reducción después de 2002. El análisis y la comprensión de este problema de salud pública exigen el uso de metodologías analíticas multidisciplinarias.

Abstract Introduction: Homicide is a universal indicator of social violence with large public health consequences. Objectives: To describe mortality by homicides and to analyze its trends and geographic distribution in Colombia between 1998 and 2012. Materials and methods: We conducted a descriptive study of deaths by homicide in Colombia between 1998 and 2012 using official mortality databases and the population projections of the Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística, DANE. We calculated age- and sex-specific mortality rates, and we analyzed the geographical distribution of mean-adjusted homicide mortality rates at municipal level. Results: Between 1998 and 2012, 331,470 homicides were reported in Colombia. The mean crude rate was 51.5 per 100,000 inhabitants: 95.9 in men and 8.2 in women. Since 2003, a decrease in the number of deaths and rates was observed; 91.9% of the victims were men and the highest mortality rates were reported in the 20-29 years old group. The most frequently involved mechanism was the firearm: Eight of 10 homicides in men, and seven of 10 homicides in women. Out of 1,122 municipalities, 186 were in the highest quintile, accumulating 50.1% of all deaths. Conclusions: In Colombia, homicides have been one of the leading causes of death with a trend towards reduction since 2002. Its geographical distribution has been heterogeneous. To continue addressing this public health issue we must recur to multidisciplinary analytical methodologies for a better understanding of the phenomenon.

Effect of rotavirus vaccine on childhood diarrhea mortality in five Latin American countries.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to estimate the association between rotavirus vaccine (RV) introduction and reduction of all-cause diarrhea death rates among children in five Latin American countries that introduced RV in 2006. METHODS: Diarrhea mortality data was gathered from 2002 until 2009 from the Pan American Health Organization Mortality Database for five "vaccine adopter" countries (Brazil, El Salvador, Mexico, Nicaragua, and Panama) that introduced RV in 2006 and four "control" countries (Argentina, Chile, Costa Rica, and Paraguay) that did not introduce RV by 2009. Time trend analyses were carried out, and effects and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated. RESULTS: Each of the five vaccine adopter countries, except Panama, showed a significant trend in declining mortality rates during the post-vaccine period from 2006 to 2009, whereas no decline was seen in control countries during these years. Furthermore, trends of reduction of all-cause diarrhea mortality in both children <1 year of age and <5 years of age were greater in the post-vaccination period compared with the pre-vaccine period in all vaccine adopter countries (except for Nicaragua), whereas in control countries, a reverse pattern was seen with greater reduction in the early years from 2002 to 2005 versus 2006-2009. An estimatedtotal of 1777 of annual under-5 deaths were avoided in Brazil, El Salvador, Mexico, and Nicaragua during the post-vaccination period. CONCLUSION: All vaccine adopter countries, except Panama, showed a significant decrease in all-cause diarrhea-related deaths after RV implementation, even after adjusting for declining trends over time in diarrhea mortality. These data strongly support continuous efforts to increase vaccination coverage of RV vaccines, particularly in countries with high levels of child mortality from diarrhea.

Maternal mortality in Colombia in 2011: a two level ecological study.

OBJECTIVE: Maternal mortality reduction is a Millennium Development Goal. In Colombia, there is a large disparity in the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) between and into departments (states) and also between municipalities. We examined socioeconomics variables at the municipal and departmental levels which could be associated to the municipal maternal mortality in Colombia. METHODS: A multilevel ecology study was carried out using different national data sources in Colombia. The outcome variable was the MMR at municipal level in 2011 with multidimensional poverty at municipal and department level as the principal independent variables and other measures of the social and economic characteristics at municipal and departmental level were also considered explicative variables (overall fertility municipal rate, percentage of local rural population, health insurance coverage, per capita territorial participation allocated to the health sector, transparency index and Gini coefficient). The association between MMR and socioeconomic contextual conditions at municipal and departmental level was assessed using a multilevel Poisson regression model. RESULTS: The MMR in the Colombian municipalities was associated significantly with the multidimensional poverty (relative ratio of MMR: 3.52; CI 95%: 1.09-11.38). This association was stronger in municipalities from departments with the highest poverty (relative ratio of MMR: 7.14; CI 95%: 2.01-25.35). Additionally, the MMR at municipal level was marginally associated with municipally health insurance coverage (relative ratio of MMR: 0.99; CI 95%: 0.98-1.00), and significantly with transparency index at departmental level (relative ratio of MMR: 0.98; CI 95%: 0.97-0.99). CONCLUSION: Poverty and transparency in a contextual level were associated with the increase of the municipal MMR in Colombia. The results of this study are useful evidence for informing the public policies discussion and formulation processes with a differential approach.

Effectiveness of the monovalent rotavirus vaccine in Colombia: a case-control study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effectiveness of the monovalent rotavirus vaccine (RV1) to prevent rotavirus diarrhea admissions to emergency departments (ED) in Colombia. METHODS: A multicenter case-control study was carried out in six Colombian cities from 2011 to January, 2013. Cases were laboratory confirmed rotavirus diarrhea patients admitted to ED of selected health centers. Controls were patients with non-rotavirus diarrhea. Vaccination status was card-confirmed. Vaccine effectiveness and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated from the conditional logistic regression models using the formula 1-adjusted odds ratio×100. RESULTS: 1051 fecal samples were collected from 193 cases and 858 controls. Vaccination history was confirmed on 173 cases (90%) and 801 controls (93%). Among the rotavirus-positive samples with vaccination history, 57% were G2P[4], 9.8% G9P[8], 6% G9P[6]. Median age of cases (17 months) was greater than controls (15 months) (P<0.001), and mothers of cases had lower level of education (P=0.025). The adjusted effectiveness was 79.19% (95% CI, 23.7 to 94.32) among children 6-11 months of age and -39.75% (95% CI, -270.67 to 47.24) among those >12 months of age. Against overnight rotavirus hospitalizations, RV1 provided protection of 84.42% (95% CI, 22.68 to 96.86) among children 6-11 months of age, and -79.49% (95% CI, -555.8 to 51.08) among those >12 months. CONCLUSIONS: RV1 provided significant protection against rotavirus hospitalization among children under 1 year of age in the Colombian setting. The observation of lower effectiveness in children >12 months requires further assessment.

Characterization of rotavirus genotypes before and after the introduction of a monovalent rotavirus vaccine in Colombia.

Strain monitoring for emergence of novel strains after the introduction of rotavirus vaccine is an integral component of routine rotavirus immunization programs. Using a laboratory based strain surveillance system between 2008 and 2012, a wide variation in strain pattern in Colombia was founded both before and after the introduction of a monovalent rotavirus vaccine in 2009. G2P[4], a strain fully heterotypic to the vaccine was predominant before vaccine introduction in 2008 (47%) and after vaccine introduction in 2010 (54%), 2011 (86%), and 2012 (32%). The presence of this strain before the introduction of vaccine and decreasing prevalence during the most recent surveillance year suggests secular variation rather than vaccine pressure as a cause for this fluctuation. While strain monitoring can be valuable after vaccine introduction, these surveillance data alone without information on disease incidence or strain specific vaccine effectiveness can be prone to misinterpretation with regard to the role of vaccine pressure on emergence of new or persistent strains.