Pilot Test of an Integrated Sexual Risk Reduction Intervention for Women with a History of Childhood Sexual Abuse.

HIV and childhood sexual abuse (CSA) are intersecting public health problems for women. We pilot tested an integrated sexual risk reduction intervention for women with a history of CSA that addressed both the consequences of CSA [based on the Traumagenic Dynamics (TD) framework] and the antecedents of sexual risk behavior (based on the Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills [IMB] model). Women with a history of CSA who were attending a public STI clinic (n = 84) were randomly assigned to a five-session integrated TD/IMB (experimental) group intervention or to a time-matched IMB-guided sexual risk reduction (control) group intervention. Preliminary findings indicated that women in the integrated TD/IMB intervention reduced their average number of episodes of unprotected sex with a primary partner, their alcohol use, and their likelihood of being in a violent relationship, relative to women in the IMB-only group. Our findings suggest that sexual risk reduction interventions that address both the consequences of CSA and the antecedents of sexual risk behavior may be efficacious in reducing sexual risk behavior among women who were sexually abused.

Development and Preliminary Pilot Testing of a Peer Support Text Messaging Intervention for HIV-Infected Black Men Who Have Sex With Men.

BACKGROUND: Black men who have sex with men (MSM) are disproportionately infected with HIV and are less well retained along the HIV continuum of care. We report on the feasibility of a peer support text messaging intervention designed to increase retention in HIV care and HIV medication adherence among HIV-infected black men who have sex with men. METHODS: Based on formative research, a cell phone app was developed to support a peer-based text messaging intervention. The app allowed the researchers to view text messages sent between mentors and mentees, but did not allow them to view other text messages sent by these phones. Three HIV-infected black men who have sex with men were recruited to serve as volunteer peer mentors. They were trained in motivational techniques, peer support skills, and skills for improving appointment attendance and medication adherence. Mentees (N = 8) received the intervention for 1 month. Mentees completed a postintervention survey and interview. RESULTS: The peer mentor text messaging intervention was feasible. Mentors delivered support in a nonjudgmental, motivational way. However, technical and other implementation problems arose. Some mentees desired more frequent contact with mentors, and mentors reported that other commitments made it difficult at times to be fully engaged. Both mentors and mentees desired more personalized contact (ie, phone calls). CONCLUSIONS: A text messaging peer mentor intervention was feasible. Additional research with a larger sample is needed to determine optimal ways to improve mentors' engagement in the intervention and to determine intervention acceptability and efficacy. In future studies, peer support phone calls could be incorporated.

Mobile technology use and desired technology-based intervention characteristics among HIV+ Black men who have sex with men.

HIV positive Black men who have sex with men (MSM) are retained in HIV medical care at suboptimal rates. Interventions targeted to Black MSM are needed to help to improve their retention in care. The purposes of this study were to investigate the use of mobile technology among HIV+ Black MSM and to explore participants' thoughts about the use of mobile technology for HIV retention in care interventions. Twenty-two HIV+ Black MSM completed a technology use survey and participated in a qualitative interview regarding technology-based interventions. The majority of participants (95%) had access to a cell phone, and used their phones frequently (median 3 hours/day). Men preferred interventions that would allow for anonymous participation and that would provide individually tailored support. Mobile technology is a promising approach to intervention delivery for both younger and older HIV+ Black MSM. These interventions should incorporate features that are desirable to men (i.e., anonymous participation and individual tailoring).

Willingness to use couples HIV testing and discussion of sexual agreements among heterosexuals.

Couples HIV Testing and Counseling (CHTC) has been used as an HIV prevention strategy in Africa for over 20 years where the HIV epidemic is largely concentrated among sexually active heterosexuals. In recent years, CHTC has been adapted for men who have sex with men (MSM) in the US. A central element of the CHTC intervention as adapted for male couples in the US is the discussion of sexual agreements by the dyad during the CHTC session. Given the success of CHTC for heterosexual couples in Africa, it seems appropriate that CHTC could also be provided to heterosexual couples in the US. However, little is known about heterosexual's willingness to utilize CHTC services including discussion of sexual agreements. This small, preliminary qualitative study sheds new light on the potential for CHTC adoption among heterosexuals in the US. Four focus groups were conducted with heterosexual men and women attending a publicly-funded STI clinic, to explore the potential feasibility and acceptability of CHTC with heterosexuals. The results are similar to those seen for MSM: high levels of willingness to use CHTC, perceptions of the advantages of using CHTC, and willingness to discuss sexual agreements; all necessary conditions for the successful roll-out of CHTC. Further work is now needed with larger samples of high-risk heterosexuals to more completely understand the typologies of sexual agreements and the common language used for sexual agreements in heterosexual relationships. These early data show great promise that CHTC can achieve the same levels of willingness, fit, and acceptability among heterosexual couples as currently experienced by male couples in the US.

Evaluating a Brief, Video-Based Sexual Risk Reduction Intervention and Assessment Reactivity with STI Clinic Patients: Results from a Randomized Controlled Trial.

We report results from a randomized controlled trial designed to evaluate the efficacy of a video-based sexual risk reduction intervention and to measure assessment reactivity. Patients (N = 1010; 56 % male; 69 % African American) receiving care at a sexually transmitted infection (STI) clinic were assigned to one of four conditions formed by crossing assessment condition (i.e., sexual health vs. general health) with intervention condition (i.e., sexual risk reduction intervention vs. general health promotion). After completing their assigned baseline assessment, participants received their assigned intervention, and subsequently returned for follow-up assessments at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months. Participants in all conditions reduced their self-reported sexual risk behavior, and the incidence of new STIs declined from baseline through the follow-ups; however, there was no effect of intervention or assessment condition. We conclude that further risk reduction will require more intensive interventions, especially in STI clinics that already provide excellent clinical care.

Improving HIV/STD prevention in the care of persons living with HIV through a national training program.

Persons living with HIV (PLWH) are living longer, remaining sexually active, and may continue risky sexual behaviors. As such, it is crucial for providers to ask all HIV-positive patients about behaviors related to HIV transmission and STD acquisition. The "Ask, Screen, Intervene" (ASI) curriculum was developed to increase provider knowledge, skills, and motivation to incorporate risk assessment and prevention services into the care of PLWH. The ASI curriculum was delivered to 2558 HIV-care providers at 137 sites between September 30, 2007 and December 31, 2010. Immediately post-training, participants self-reported significant gains in perceived confidence to demonstrate ASI knowledge and skills (p < 0.001) and 89% agreed they would update practices as a result of the training. Three to six months post-training, 320 participants who served PLWH or supervised HIV-care providers self-reported more frequently performing ASI skills (p < 0.001), and 71% self-reported greater perceived confidence than before training to perform those skills (p < 0.001). Limitations include self-reported measures and a 30% response rate to the 3-6 month follow-up survey. Our findings suggest that a well-coordinated training program can reach a national audience of HIV-care providers, significantly increase self-reported capacity to incorporate HIV/STD prevention into the care of PLWH, and increase implementation of national recommendations.

Optimizing the scientific yield from a randomized controlled trial (RCT): evaluating two behavioral interventions and assessment reactivity with a single trial.

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) remain the gold standard for evaluating intervention efficacy but are often costly. To optimize their scientific yield, RCTs can be designed to investigate multiple research questions. This paper describes an RCT that used a modified Solomon four-group design to simultaneously evaluate two, theoretically-guided, health promotion interventions as well as assessment reactivity. Recruited participants (N = 1010; 56% male; 69% African American) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions formed by crossing two intervention conditions (i.e., general health promotion vs. sexual risk reduction intervention) with two assessment conditions (i.e., general health vs. sexual health survey). After completing their assigned baseline assessment, participants received the assigned intervention, and returned for follow-ups at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months. In this report, we summarize baseline data, which show high levels of sexual risk behavior; alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco use; and fast food consumption. Sexual risk behaviors and substance use were correlated. Participants reported high satisfaction with both interventions but ratings for the sexual risk reduction intervention were higher. Planned follow-up sessions, and subsequent analyses, will assess changes in health behaviors including sexual risk behaviors. This study design demonstrates one way to optimize the scientific yield of an RCT.

Mediators of the relation between childhood sexual abuse and women's sexual risk behavior: a comparison of two theoretical frameworks.

Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) is associated with sexual risk behavior in adulthood, but little research has investigated processes that might mediate this relation. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether constructs suggested by the traumagenic dynamics (TD) model (a theory of the effects of CSA) or constructs suggested by the information-motivation-behavioral skills (IMB) model (a theory of the antecedents of sexual risk behavior) better mediated the relation between CSA and sexual risk behavior in adulthood. Participants were 481 women attending a sexually transmitted infection clinic (66% African American) who completed a computerized survey as well as behavioral simulations assessing condom application and sexual assertiveness skills. Forty-five percent of the sample met criteria for CSA and CSA was associated with sexual risk behavior in adulthood. In multiple mediator models, the TD constructs mediated the relation between CSA and the number of sexual partners whereas the IMB constructs mediated the relation between CSA and unprotected sex. In addition, the TD constructs better mediated the relation between CSA and the number of sexual partners; the TD and IMB constructs did not differ in their ability to mediate the relation between CSA and unprotected sex. Sexual risk reduction interventions for women who were sexually abused should target not only the constructs from health behavior models (e.g., motivation and skills to reduce sexual risk), but also constructs that are specific to sexual abuse (e.g., traumatic sexualization and guilt).

Self-defining as sexually abused and adult sexual risk behavior: results from a cross-sectional survey of women attending an STD clinic.

OBJECTIVE: Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) is associated with increased sexual risk behavior in adulthood, and this association may be mediated by traumagenic dynamics constructs (i.e., traumatic sexualization, trust, guilt, and powerlessness). However, few studies have investigated whether such relationships hold for women who do not identify as having experienced CSA despite meeting objective criteria that CSA occurred. This study sought to determine whether individuals who met research criteria for CSA and who self-defined as sexually abused differed on traumagenic dynamics constructs and current sexual risk behavior from individuals who met research criteria for CSA and who did not self-define as sexually abused. METHODS: Participants were 481 women recruited from a publicly funded STD clinic. Participants completed a computerized survey assessing childhood sexual experiences and adult sexual risk behavior. RESULTS: Of the total sample, 206 (43%) met research criteria for CSA. Of the women meeting research criteria for CSA, 142 (69%) self-defined as sexually abused. Women who met research criteria for CSA reported more traumatic sexualization, more trust of a partner, more powerlessness, less sexual guilt, more episodes of unprotected sex, more sex partners, and greater likelihood of sex trading, compared to women who did not meet research criteria for CSA. Among women meeting research criteria, those who self-defined as sexually abused did not differ from those who did not self-define on any of the traumagenic dynamics constructs or on current sexual risk behavior, controlling for CSA characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: Individuals who were sexually abused as children by behavioral research criteria are at risk for engaging in sexual risk behavior as adults, regardless of whether or not they perceive the experience to be CSA. Future research is needed to understand how non-definers perceive these childhood sexual experiences.

Predicting condom use among STD clinic patients using the Information - Motivation-Behavioral Skills (IMB) model.

We assessed determinants of condom use postulated by the IMB model among STD patients (N = 1474). The model provided acceptable fit to the data (CFI = 0.99, RMSEA = .04). Information was unrelated to condom use but had a negative effect on behavioral skills. Motivation had a positive effect on behavioral skills and condom use. Behavioral skills had a positive effect on condom use. In multiple-groups analyses, stronger associations between motivation and condom use were found among participants reporting no prior STD treatment. Interventions among STD patients should include activities addressing condom use motivation and directly enhancing condom skills.

Brief and intensive behavioral interventions to promote sexual risk reduction among STD clinic patients: results from a randomized controlled trial.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the separate and combined effectiveness of brief and intensive interventions for sexual risk reduction among patients at a sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic. Patients (N =1483; 54% men; 64% African-American; M = 29.2 years old) were recruited from a publicly funded, walk-in STD clinic. Patients completed a baseline assessment, and then were randomized to one of six intervention arms; each arm combined a brief intervention with an intensive intervention. The interventions provided different levels of information, motivational counseling, and behavioral skills training, guided by theory, formative research, and empiric precedent. Follow-up assessments, including STD screening, occurred at 3, 6, and 12 months post-intervention. The results showed that infection rates declined from 18.1% at baseline to 4.5% at 12 months. At a 3-month follow-up, patients reported fewer sexual partners, fewer episodes of unprotected sex, and a lower percentage of unprotected sexual events; they strengthened sexual health knowledge, safer sex attitudes and intentions, and self-efficacy beliefs. No consistent pattern of differential risk reduction was observed among the six intervention conditions, nor was any evidence of decay from 3 to 12-month follow-ups obtained. We conclude that implementing behavioral interventions in a STD clinic was associated with significant reduction of sexual risk behavior and risk antecedents.

Partner dependence and sexual risk behavior among STI clinic patients.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the relation between partner dependence and sexual risk behavior in the context of the information-motivation-behavioral skills (IMB) model. METHODS: STI clinic patients (n = 1432) completed a computerized interview assessing partner dependence, condom use, and IMB variables. RESULTS: Men had higher partner-dependence scores than women did. Patients reporting greater dependence reported less condom use. Gender did not moderate the partner dependence-condom-use relationship. Partner dependence did not moderate the relation between IMB constructs and condom use. CONCLUSIONS: Further research is needed to determine how partner dependence can be incorporated into conceptual models of safer sex behaviors.

Alcohol consumption, drug use, and condom use among STD clinic patients.

OBJECTIVE: Research on the association between substance use and sexual risk behavior has yielded a complex pattern of findings. Such inconsistent findings may reflect method variance, including factors such as gender of the participant, nature of the sexual event, partner characteristics, and type of substance used. The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between substance use and unprotected sex independently for alcohol, drugs, or combined substance use and to examine partner characteristics as a moderator of this association. METHOD: Participants (N = 1,419; 48% women) were recruited from a publicly funded sexually transmitted disease clinic and were asked to complete an audio computer-assisted self-interview regarding their most recent sexual experience, including nature of the event, substance use, and partner characteristics. RESULTS: Analyses showed that alcohol use was related to condom use when gender and partner type were considered; thus, for women, but not for men, partner type interacted with alcohol consumption such that condom use was less likely when alcohol consumption preceded sex with nonprimary partners (drinking was unrelated to condom use with primary partners). Subsequent analyses examining partner substance use showed that women, but not men, who reported both they and their nonprimary partners were drinking during sex were less likely to use a condom. CONCLUSIONS: At the event level, alcohol consumption among sexually transmitted disease clinic patients is associated with condom use, but this association differs by gender and partner characteristics. Findings suggest the need to strengthen substance-use components in sexual risk reduction interventions for women and their partners.

Efficacy of an HIV/STI prevention intervention for black men who have sex with men: findings from the Many Men, Many Voices (3MV) project.

Black men who have sex with men (MSM) in the United States experience disproportionately high rates of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs); however, the number of evidence-based interventions for Black MSM is limited. This study evaluated the efficacy of Many Men, Many Voices (3MV), a small-group HIV/STI prevention intervention developed by Black MSM-serving community-based organizations and a university-based HIV/STI prevention and training program. The study sample included 338 Black MSM of HIV-negative or unknown HIV serostatus residing in New York city. Participants were randomly assigned to the 3MV intervention condition (n = 164) or wait-list comparison condition (n = 174). Relative to comparison participants, 3MV participants reported significantly greater reductions in any unprotected anal intercourse with casual male partners; a trend for consistent condom use during receptive anal intercourse with casual male partners; and significantly greater reductions in the number of male sex partners and greater increases in HIV testing. This study is the first randomized trial to demonstrate the efficacy of an HIV/STI prevention intervention for Black MSM.

Improving HIV rapid testing rates among STD clinic patients: a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that HIV testing be a standard part of medical care; however, testing is voluntary and some patients decline. We evaluated 2 brief interventions to promote rapid HIV testing among STD clinic patients who initially declined testing. METHOD: Using a randomized controlled trial, patients either viewed an educational digital video disc (DVD) or participated in stage-based behavioral counseling (SBC) provided by a nurse. Sixty clients presenting for care at a STD clinic who initially declined HIV testing at registration and during risk behavior screening participated in the study. RESULTS: The primary outcome was whether patients agreed to be tested for HIV. The secondary outcomes included attitudes, knowledge, and stage-of-change regarding HIV testing. Patients receiving both interventions improved their attitudes and knowledge about testing (ps < .01). Patients receiving SBC agreed to testing more often (45%) than did patients who viewed the DVD (19%; p < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Brief interventions can increase rapid HIV testing acceptance among patients who are reluctant to be tested; counseling guided by behavioral science theory is more effective than a well-designed information-based intervention.

Evaluating a two-step approach to sexual risk reduction in a publicly-funded STI clinic: rationale, design, and baseline data from the Health Improvement Project-Rochester (HIP-R).

BACKGROUND: Sexually transmitted infection (STI) clinics provide an opportune setting for HIV prevention efforts. This randomized controlled trial evaluated a unique, two-step approach to sexual risk reduction at a publicly-funded STI clinic. METHODS: During an initial visit, patients completed an audio-computer assisted self-interview (ACASI), were randomized to and received one of two brief interventions, obtained medical care, and completed a post-assessment. Next, two-thirds of the patients were assigned to attend an intensive sexual risk reduction workshop. At 3, 6, and 12 months, patients completed additional ACASIs and provided urine specimens to assess behavior change and incident STIs. RESULTS: During a 28-month interval, 5613 patients were screened, 2691 were eligible, and 1483 consented to participate and were randomized; the modal reason for declining was lack of time (82%). Consenting patients included 688 women and 795 men; 64% of participants were African-American. The sample was low-income, with 57% reporting an annual income of less than $15,000; most participants (62%) had a high school education or less, and 51% were unemployed. Sexual risk behavior was common, as indicated by multiple sexual partners (mean=32.8, lifetime; mean=2.8, past 3 months), unprotected sex (mean=17.3 episodes, past 3 months), and prior STIs (mean=3.3, lifetime; 23% at baseline). Bivariate analyses confirmed our prediction that HIV-related motivation and behavioral skills would be related to current sexual risk behavior. All patients received a brief intervention; patient satisfaction ratings were uniformly high for both interventions (all means >or=3.7 on 4-point scales). Fifty-six percent of invited patients attended the intensive workshop, and attendance did not differ as a function of brief intervention. Patient satisfaction ratings were also uniformly positive for the workshop interventions (all means >or=3.6). Return to follow-up assessments exceeded 70%. CONCLUSIONS: Results demonstrate that implementing an HIV preventive program in a busy, public clinic is feasible and well-accepted by patients. Ongoing evaluation will determine if the interventions reduce sexual risk behavior and lower incident STIs.

Do STD clinic patients who consent to sexual health research differ from those who decline? Findings from a randomized controlled trial with implications for the generalization of research results.

OBJECTIVES: This study determined whether patients from an STD clinic who agreed to participate in behavioral research are representative of the overall patient population. STUDY DESIGN: Patients attending an STD clinic (N = 2694) were invited to participate in sexual risk-reduction research. Those who accepted (consenters) were compared to those who declined (nonconsenters) on data obtained from the medical chart. RESULTS: Overall, 58% of eligible patients consented to participation. Logistic regression analyses indicated that consenting to participate was associated with female sex [odds ratio (OR) = 1.86], nonwhite race (OR = 2.16), having completed at least some college (OR = 1.70), being a returning patient (OR = 1.21), and having a greater number of sexual partners in the past 3 months (OR = 6.95) (all P's <0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Patients who agreed to participate had more education, were more familiar with the setting, and were more vulnerable to HIV/STD (as suggested by epidemiologic research). Efforts to enhance participation by an even greater percentage of patients might target these predictors of participation by enhancing risk awareness and providing preemptive reassurances regarding the research process and setting.

Even if you build it, we may not come: correlates of non-attendance at a sexual risk reduction workshop for STD clinic patients.

Sexual risk reduction interventions have been shown to reduce sexual risk behavior; however, attendance at these interventions is sometimes disappointingly low. To improve recruitment efforts, we investigated whether patient characteristics were associated with non-attendance at a single-session, sexual risk reduction intervention. Patients from an STD clinic (N = 990; 48% female; 64% African American) who were eligible and who agreed to participate in a randomized, clinical trial were invited to a 4-h, sexual risk reduction workshop. Fifty-six percent of those who were invited attended the workshop. Those who did not attend were more likely to be younger, male, Caucasian, and employed. Attendance did not differ as a function of sexual behavior or infection status. These findings identify the population sub-groups who are likely to require special effort to attract to a workshop. We encourage more effective marketing and recruitment approaches for sexual risk reduction programs.

Characteristics of sexual abuse in childhood and adolescence influence sexual risk behavior in adulthood.

Childhood and adolescent sexual abuse has been associated with subsequent (adult) sexual risk behavior, but the effects of force and type of sexual abuse on sexual behavior outcomes have been less well-studied. The present study investigated the associations between sexual abuse characteristics and later sexual risk behavior, and explored whether gender of the child/adolescent moderated these relations. Patients attending an STD clinic completed a computerized survey that assessed history of sexual abuse as well as lifetime and current sexual behavior. Participants were considered sexually abused if they reported a sexual experience (1) before age 13 with someone 5 or more years older, (2) between the ages of 13 and 16 with someone 10 or more years older, or (3) before the age of 17 involving force or coercion. Participants who were sexually abused were further categorized based on two abuse characteristics, namely, use of penetration and force. Analyses included 1177 participants (n=534 women; n=643 men). Those who reported sexual abuse involving penetration and/or force reported more adult sexual risk behavior, including the number of lifetime partners and number of previous STD diagnoses, than those who were not sexually abused and those who were abused without force or penetration. There were no significant differences in sexual risk behavior between nonabused participants and those who reported sexual abuse without force and without penetration. Gender of the child/adolescent moderated the association between sexual abuse characteristics and adult sexual risk behavior; for men, sexual abuse with force and penetration was associated with the greatest number of episodes of sex trading, whereas for women, those who were abused with penetration, regardless of whether the abuse involved force, reported the most episodes of sex trading. These findings indicate that more severe sexual abuse is associated with riskier adult sexual behavior.