Restoration of intestinal function in an MPTP model of Parkinson's Disease.

Patients with Parkinson's disease often experience non-motor symptoms including constipation, which manifest prior to the onset of debilitating motor signs. Understanding the causes of these non-motor deficits and developing disease modifying therapeutic strategies has the potential to prevent disease progression. Specific neuronal subpopulations were reduced within the myenteric plexus of mice 21 days after intoxication by the intraperitoneal administration of MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) and was associated with a reduction in stool frequency, indicative of intestinal dysfunction. Oral administration of the divalent copper complex, Cu(II)(atsm), which has been shown to be neuroprotective and restore motor performance to MPTP lesioned mice, improved stool frequency and was correlated with restoration of neuronal subpopulations in the myenteric plexus of MPTP lesioned mice. Restoration of intestinal function was associated with reduced enteric glial cell reactivity and reduction of markers of inflammation. Therapeutics that have been shown to be neuroprotective in the central nervous system, such as Cu(II)(atsm), therefore also provide symptom relief and are disease modifying in the intestinal tract, suggesting that there is a common cause of Parkinson's disease pathogenesis in the enteric nervous system and central nervous system.

Femoral nerve entrapment in a dog with diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis.

OBJECTIVE: To report femoral neuropathy caused by nerve entrapment associated with diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). STUDY DESIGN: Case report. ANIMAL: Seven-year-old female spayed Boxer dog. RESULTS: Entrapment of the right femoral nerve due to DISH caused a femoral nerve deficit and atrophy of muscle groups associated with the affected nerve. A combination of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging was performed to provide a diagnosis. Amputation of the right transverse process of the sixth lumbar vertebra at the level of nerve entrapment relieved the neurological abnormality. CONCLUSIONS: Nerve entrapment leading to neurapraxia may occur concurrently with DISH and surgery in this case was successful in restoring function. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Peripheral neuropathy from nerve entrapment should be considered in patients with DISH. Surgical amputation of impinging osseous structures may be indicated for relief of femoral neuropathy.

Bronchial stent placement in a dog with bronchomalacia and left atrial enlargement.

A 13-year-old neutered male Maltese was referred for paroxysms of coughing and cyanosis, with radiographic evidence of bronchial disease and cardiomegaly. Investigation with echocardiography, bronchoscopy, fluoroscopy and bronchoalveolar lavage led to a diagnosis of myxomatous mitral valve degeneration with insufficiency, ISACHC class II heart failure and bronchomalacia with severe left mainstem bronchial collapse. Persistence of intractable cough despite medical therapy prompted placement of a stent in the left mainstem bronchus. Immediately after stent placement, severe pulmonary oedema developed, thought to be due to compression of the left atrium by the stent or acute lung injury related to stent placement. The dog recovered over a 3-day period with diuretic therapy and positive end expiratory pressure ventilation. Subsequently, the dog died from congestive heart failure 102 days after stent placement, during which time occasional, self limiting coughing episodes occurred.

Intraoperative parathyroid hormone concentration to confirm removal of hypersecretory parathyroid tissue and time to postoperative normocalcaemia in nine dogs with primary hyperparathyroidism.

OBJECTIVE: To determine (1) whether the intraoperative parathyroid hormone concentration ([PTH]) during parathyroidectomy (PTX) can be used to indicate cure in dogs with primary hyperparathyroidism and (2) the time taken for postoperative serum calcium concentration to normalise. DESIGN: Retrospective study (2005-10) from a private referral hospital in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. PROCEDURE: Nine client-owned dogs underwent surgical PTX for naturally occurring primary hyperparathyroidism. [PTH] was measured from serum samples taken immediately post-induction (pre-PTX]) and at least 20 min after adenoma removal (post-PTX) for all dogs, and during parathyroid gland manipulation (intra-PTX) for six dogs. The concentration of ionised calcium (iCa) was measured at various time points postoperatively until it normalised, then stabilised or decreased below reference ranges. Statistical analysis compared the mean pre-, intra- and post-PTX [PTH] and the average rate of decline of iCa concentration postoperatively. RESULTS: All dogs demonstrated a significant decrease from mean pre-PTX [PTH] (168.51 pg/mL) to mean post-PTX [PTH] (29.20 pg/mL). There was a significant increase in mean intra-PTX [PTH] (279.78 pg/mL). The average rate of decline of iCa concentration postoperatively to within the reference range (1.12-1.40 mmol/L) occurred after 24 h. CONCLUSION: Intraoperative measurements of [PTH] can be used clinically to determine cure of primary hyperparathyroidism. Parathyroid hormone increases significantly during parathyroid gland manipulation. Plasma iCa concentration returns to within the reference range on average 24 h after successful PTX. Not all dogs require vitamin D or calcium supplementation pre- or postoperatively.

Fluoroscopic stent placement for the relief of malignant urethral obstruction in a cat.

The clinical features and interventional therapy in the case of a female cat with urinary tract obstruction secondary to neoplasia are presented. This form of neoplasia in cats is rare and therapeutic intervention to relieve urinary tract obstruction caused by malignancy has been described only once. This is the first report of a self-expandable metallic stent placed in a feline urethra to relieve obstruction caused by malignancy and the first report of the use of a unique composite metallic stent (Platinol™) in a cat. In conclusion, the palliative stenting of the feline urethra may be a valid therapeutic intervention for malignancies. Further studies are required to determine the optimal size and type of stent that will provide the greatest benefit.

A comparative analysis of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (Lrrk2) expression in mouse brain and Lewy body disease.

Pathogenic substitutions in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2, Lrrk2) have been genetically linked to familial, late-onset Parkinsonism. End-stage disease is predominantly associated with nigral neuronal loss and Lewy body pathology, but patients may have gliosis, tau or ubiquitin inclusions (pleomorphic pathology). The anatomical distribution of Lrrk2 protein may provide insight into its function in health and neurodegeneration, thus we performed a comparative study with 'in-house' and commercially available Lrrk2 antibodies using brain tissue from wild type and human Lrrk2 transgenic bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) mice, and from diffuse Lewy body disease (DLBD) patients. Lrrk2 protein was ubiquitously expressed and relatively abundant in most brain regions, including the substantia nigra, thalamus and striatum. Lrrk2 was not a major component of Lewy body or neuritic pathology associated with Parkinson's disease. However, selective loss of dopaminergic neurons in Lrrk2-associated Parkinsonism argues the protein may have regional-specific interactions. Lrrk2 immunohistochemical staining was present in the subventricular zone, a region containing stem cells that give rise to both neurons and glia. A role for Lrrk2 in neurogenesis might provide further insight into the aberrant role of mutant protein in age-associated neurodegeneration with pleomorphic pathology.

alpha-Synuclein fibrils constitute the central core of oligodendroglial inclusion filaments in multiple system atrophy.

Multiple system atrophy (MSA) belongs to synucleinopathies and is characterized pathologically by oligodendroglial inclusions (GCIs) composed of 20- to 30-nm tubular filaments. alpha-Synuclein fibrils formed in vitro, however, range between 10 and 12 nm in diameter. To understand the relationship between alpha-synuclein and GCI filaments, we conducted structural analyses of GCIs in fixed brain sections and isolated from fresh-frozen MSA brains. In fixed brain sections, GCIs were composed of amorphous material-coated filaments up to 30 nm in size. The filaments were often organized in parallel bundles extending into oligodendroglial processes. In freshly isolated GCIs, progressive buffer washes removed amorphous material and revealed that GCI filaments consisted of 10-nm-sized central core fibrils that were strongly alpha-synuclein immunoreactive. Image analysis revealed that each core fibril was made of two subfibrils, and each subfibril was made of a string of 3- to 6-nm-sized particles probably alpha-synuclein oligomers. Immunogold labeling demonstrated that epitopes encompassing entire alpha-synuclein molecule were represented in the core fibrils, with the N-terminal 11-26 and C-terminal 108-131 amino acid residues most accessible to antibodies, probably exposed on the surface of the fibril. Our study indicates that GCI filaments are multilayered in structure, with alpha-synuclein oligomers forming the central core fibrils of the filaments.

An analysis of the forces required to drag sheep over various surfaces.

Some occupational health and safety hazards associated with sheep shearing are related to shearing shed design. One aspect is the floor of the catching pen, from which sheep are caught and dragged to the shearing workstation. Floors can be constructed from various materials, and may be level or gently sloping. An experiment was conducted using eight experienced shearers as participants to measure the force exerted by a shearer when dragging a sheep. Results showed that significant changes in mean dragging force occurred with changes in both surface texture and slope. The mean dragging forces for different floor textures and slopes ranged from 359 N (36.6 kg) to 423N (43.2 kg), and were close to the maximum acceptable limits for pulling forces for the most capable of males. The best floor tested was a floor sloped at 1:10 constructed of timber battens oriented parallel to the path of the drag, which resulted in a mean dragging force 63.6N (15%) lower than the worst combination.

Aspartyl protease inhibitor pepstatin binds to the presenilins of Alzheimer's disease.

Mutations in the presenilin genes PS1 and PS2 cause early-onset Alzheimer's disease by altering gamma-secretase cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein, the last step in the generation of Abeta peptide. Ablation of presenilin (PS) genes, or mutation of two critical aspartates, abolishes gamma-secretase cleavage, suggesting that PS may be the gamma-secretases. Independently, inhibition experiments indicate that gamma-secretase is an aspartyl protease. To characterize the putative gamma-secretase activity associated with presenilins, lysates from human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y and human brain homogenates were incubated with biotin derivatives of pepstatin, followed by immunoprecipitation of PS and associated proteins, and biotin detection by Western blotting. Precipitation with PS1 antibodies, directed to either N-terminal or loop regions, yielded the same 43 kDa band, of apparent molecular mass consistent with that of full-length PS1, although it may represent an aspartyl protease complexed with PS1. Incubation of cell lysates with pepstatin-biotin, followed by streptavidin precipitation and PS1 Western blotting, revealed PS1 fragments and full-length protein, indicating that pepstatin-biotin bound to both cleaved and uncleaved PS1. Binding could be competed by gamma-secretase inhibitor L-685,458 and could not be achieved with a PS1 mutant lacking the two transmembrane aspartates. Pepstatin-biotin was also shown to bind to PS2. PS1 was specifically absorbed to pepstatin-agarose, with an optimal pH of 6. Binding of pepstatin-biotin to PS1 from lymphocytes of a heterozygous carrier of pathologic exon 9 deletion was markedly decreased as compared to control lymphocytes, suggesting that this PS1 mutation altered the pepstatin binding site.

Duck hepatitis B virus replication in primary bile duct epithelial cells.

Primary cultures of intrahepatic bile duct epithelial (IBDE) cells isolated from duckling livers were successfully grown for studies of duck hepatitis B virus (DHBV). The primary IBDE cells were characterized by immunohistochemistry using CAM 5.2, a cytokeratin marker which was shown to react specifically to IBDE cells in duck liver tissue sections and in primary cultures of total duck liver cells. Immunofluorescence assay using anti-duck albumin, a marker for hepatocytes, revealed that these IBDE cultures did not appear to contain hepatocytes. A striking feature of these cultures was the duct-like structures present within each cell colony of multilayered IBDE cells. Normal duck serum in the growth medium was found to be essential for the development of these cells into duct-like structures. When the primary cultures of duck IBDE cells were acutely infected with DHBV, dual-labeled confocal microscopy using a combination of anti-DHBV core proteins and CAM 5.2 or a combination of anti-pre-S1 proteins and CAM 5.2 revealed that the IBDE cell colonies contained DHBV proteins. Immunoblot analysis of these cells showed that the DHBV pre-S1 and core proteins were similar to their counterparts in infected primary duck hepatocyte cultures. Southern blot analysis of infected IBDE preparations using a digoxigenin-labeled positive-sense DHBV riboprobe revealed the presence of hepadnavirus covalently closed circular (CCC) DNA, minus-sense single-stranded (SS) DNA, double-stranded linear DNA, and relaxed circular DNA. The presence of minus-sense SS DNA in the acutely infected IBDE cultures is indicative of DHBV reverse transcriptase activity, while the establishment of a pool of viral CCC DNA reveals the ability of these cells to maintain persistent infection. Taken collectively, the results from this study demonstrated that primary duck IBDE cells supported hepadnavirus replication as shown by the de novo synthesis of DHBV proteins and DNA replicative intermediates.

The solubility of alpha-synuclein in multiple system atrophy differs from that of dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson's disease.

Intracellular inclusions containing alpha-synuclein (alpha SN) are pathognomonic features of several neurodegenerative disorders. Inclusions occur in oligodendrocytes in multiple system atrophy (MSA) and in neurons in dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and Parkinson's disease (PD). In order to identify disease-associated changes of alpha SN, this study compared the levels, solubility and molecular weight species of alpha SN in brain homogenates from MSA, DLB, PD and normal aged controls. In DLB and PD, substantial amounts of detergent-soluble and detergent-insoluble alpha SN were detected compared with controls in grey matter homogenate. Compared with controls, MSA cases had significantly higher levels of alpha SN in the detergent-soluble fraction of brain samples from pons and white matter but detergent-insoluble alpha SN was not detected. There was an inverse correlation between buffered saline-soluble and detergent-soluble levels of alpha SN in individual MSA cases suggesting a transition towards insolubility in disease. The differences in solubility of alpha SN between grey and white matter in disease may result from different processing of alpha SN in neurons compared with oligodendrocytes. Highly insoluble alpha SN is not involved in the pathogenesis of MSA. It is therefore possible that buffered saline-soluble or detergent-soluble forms of alpha SN are involved in the pathogenesis of other alpha SN-related diseases.

Targeted mutagenesis of Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 3 (PfEMP3) disrupts cytoadherence of malaria-infected red blood cells.

Adhesion of parasite-infected red blood cells to the vascular endothelium is a critical event in the pathogenesis of malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum. Adherence is mediated by the variant erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1). Another protein, erythrocyte membrane protein-3 (PfEMP3), is deposited under the membrane of the parasite-infected erythrocyte but its function is unknown. Here we show that mutation of PfEMP3 disrupts transfer of PfEMP1 to the outside of the P.FALCIPARUM:-infected cell. Truncation of the C-terminal end of PfEMP3 by transfection prevents distribution of this large (>300 kDa) protein around the membrane but does not disrupt trafficking of the protein from the parasite to the cytoplasmic face of the erythrocyte membrane. The truncated PfEMP3 accumulates in structures that appear to be associated with the erythrocyte membrane. We show that accumulation of mutated PfEMP3 blocks the transfer of PfEMP1 onto the outside of the parasitized cell surface and suggest that these proteins traffic through an erythrocyte membrane-associated compartment that is involved in the transfer of PfEMP1 to the surface of the parasite-infected red blood cell.

Accumulation of insoluble alpha-synuclein in dementia with Lewy bodies.

The alpha-synuclein (alpha SN) protein is thought to play a central role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases where it aggregates to form intracellular inclusions. We have used Western blotting to examine the expression levels and solubility of alpha SN in brain homogenates from dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), and normal controls using samples from the parahippocampus/transentorhinal cortex. Compared to controls, DLB brains accumulate significantly greater amounts of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-soluble and SDS-insoluble alpha SN but levels of TBS-soluble alpha SN did not change. Levels of synaptophysin, a marker of synaptic integrity, were significantly lower in DLB cases than in normal aged controls regardless of whether concurrent changes of AD were present. This limbic synaptic dysfunction may contribute to cognitive impairment in DLB. Whether aggregated alpha SN is a cause or effect of the disease process in DLB and PD remains to be determined, but the presence of aggregated alpha SN is consistent with a pathogenesis similar to that associated with aggregates of Abeta amyloid in AD.

Presenilin 2 expression in neuronal cells: induction during differentiation of embryonic carcinoma cells.

Mutations in the presenilin 1 and 2 (PS1 and PS2) genes cause most cases of early onset Alzheimer's disease. The genes encode two homologous multipass membrane proteins. Since the endogenous expression of PS2 has been poorly analyzed to date, we studied PS2 expression and localization in cultured human neuroblastoma cells and mouse neuronal cells. PS2 was mainly detected as a full-length protein of about 52 kDa in these cells and in brain, in contrast to PS1 that is mainly detected as endoproteolytic N-terminal and C-terminal fragments. Using immunofluorescence we found that like PS1, PS2 colocalized with markers of the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi intermediate compartment, ERGIC-53 and beta-COP. Double labeling for PS1 and PS2 indicated that both proteins are colocalized in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. To study PS2 expression during differentiation, mouse embryonic carcinoma P19 cells were treated with retinoic acid. We found minimal PS2 expression in undifferentiated cells, an increase from day 2, and a maximum at day 8 after treatment. PS1 expression remained constant during this period. The differential expression of PS1 and PS2 within the P19 cells following retinoic acid treatment indicates different utilization or temporal requirements for these proteins during neuronal differentiation.

Presenilin I expression in yeast lowers secretion of the amyloid precursor protein.

Presenilin (PS) mutations are associated with early-onset Alzheimer's disease and PS proteins are involved with gamma-secretase cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein, APP. We have shown previously that alpha-, beta- and gamma-secretase cleavages of APP are conserved in Pichia pastoris. Here, we report co-expression of APP and PSI in P. pastoris and show by immunoelectron microscopy colocalization of these two proteins in expanded endoplasmic reticulum. Western blot analysis indicates a drastic reduction of both alpha- and beta-secretase products. A relative increase in beta-secretase product derived from immature APP is also observed, pointing to a beta-secretase activity of P. pastoris associated with the early secretory pathway.

Non-Abeta component of Alzheimer's disease amyloid (NAC) revisited. NAC and alpha-synuclein are not associated with Abeta amyloid.

alpha-Synuclein (alphaSN), also termed the precursor of the non-Abeta component of Alzheimer's disease (AD) amyloid (NACP), is a major component of Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites pathognomonic of Parkinson's disease (PD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). A fragment of alphaSN termed the non-Abeta component of AD amyloid (NAC) had previously been identified as a constituent of AD amyloid plaques. To clarify the relationship of NAC and alphaSN with Abeta plaques, antibodies were raised to three domains of alphaSN. All antibodies produced punctate labeling of human cortex and strong labeling of Lewy bodies. Using antibodies to alphaSN(75-91) to label cortical and hippocampal sections of pathologically proven AD cases, we found no evidence for NAC in Abeta amyloid plaques. Double labeling of tissue sections in mixed DLB/AD cases revealed alphaSN in dystrophic neuritic processes, some of which were in close association with Abeta plaques restricted to the CA1 hippocampal region. In brain homogenates alphaSN was predominantly recovered in the cytosolic fraction as a 16-kd protein on Western analysis; however, significant amounts of aggregated and alphaSN fragments were also found in urea extracts of SDS-insoluble material from DLB and PD cases. NAC antibodies identified an endogenous fragment of 6 kd in the cytosolic and urea-soluble brain fractions. This fragment may be produced as a consequence of alphaSN aggregation or alternatively may accelerate aggregation of the full-length alphaSN.

Alpha-synuclein immunoisolation of glial inclusions from multiple system atrophy brain tissue reveals multiprotein components.

Immunohistochemical studies have shown that oligodendroglial inclusions in multiple system atrophy contain alpha-synuclein, a synaptic protein also found in Lewy bodies in Parkinson's disease. We have now used density gradient enrichment and an anti-alpha-synuclein immunomagnetic technique to isolate pure and morphologically intact oligodendroglial inclusions from brain white matter of patients dying with multiple system atrophy. Filamentous inclusion structures were obtained only from multiple system atrophy tissue, but not from normal brain tissues, or from multiple system atrophy tissue processed without anti-alpha-synuclein antibody. We confirmed the purity and morphology of isolated inclusions by electron microscopy. The inclusions comprised multiple protein bands after separation by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Immunoblotting demonstrated that these proteins included alpha-synuclein, alphaB-crystallin, tubulins, ubiquitin, and prominent, possibly truncated alpha-synuclein species as high-molecular-weight aggregates. Our study provides the first biochemical evidence that oligodendroglial inclusion filaments consist of multiple protein components, suggesting that these inclusions may form as a result of multiprotein interactions with alpha-synuclein.

Alpha-synuclein accumulates in Lewy bodies in Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies but not in Alzheimer's disease beta-amyloid plaque cores.

A growing body of evidence suggests that the non-Abeta component of Alzheimer's disease amyloid precursor protein (NACP) or alpha-synuclein contributes to the neurodegenerative processes in Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). In the present study antisera to the N terminus and the NAC domain of the alpha-synuclein protein were employed to elucidate the expression pattern in brains of patients with AD, PD, DLB and control specimen. Alpha-synuclein exhibited an overall punctuate expression profile compatible with a synaptic function. Interestingly, while Lewy bodies were strongly immunoreactive, none of the alpha-synuclein antisera revealed staining in mature beta-amyloid plaques in AD. These observations suggest that alpha-synuclein does not contribute to late neurodegenerative processes in AD brains.