"I'm Just a'-Walking the Dog" correlates of regular dog walking.

Intrapersonal and environmental factors associated with dog walking (N = 483) were examined. A greater proportion of regular (80%) than irregular (59%) dog walkers met the recommended 150 minutes of physical activity per week. Owners who perceived greater social support and motivation from their dogs to walk, and who had access to a dog-supportive park within their neighborhood, were more likely to regularly walk with their dogs, even after adjustment for other well-known correlates of physical activity. The higher level of physical activity of regular dog walkers can be attributed to the additional walking these owners perform with their dogs.

Barriers and motivators for owners walking their dog: results from qualitative research.

ISSUE ADDRESSED: This qualitative research explored the relationship between dog ownership and dog-related, social environmental and physical environmental factors associated with walking with a dog. METHODS: Seven focus groups with dog owners (n=51) were conducted. A pre-determined discussion guide was used and transcripts were analysed as group data, using content analysis to identify common themes. RESULTS: Many of the physical environmental barriers and facilitators that influenced dog owners to walk were similar to those found in the literature for general walking. However, a number of key motivators for walking, specific to dog owners, were identified. Dog owners reported that their dog was a strong source of motivation, companionship and social support that encouraged them to walk with their dog. The availability and accessibility of public open space (POS) for dogs and the provision of dog-related infrastructure within POS were also important environmental factors that affected whether owners walked with their dog. CONCLUSIONS: Results from this qualitative study were used to develop the Dogs and Physical Activity (DAPA) tool which is now being used to measure the walking behaviour of dog owners.

Physical activity behavior of dog owners: development and reliability of the Dogs and Physical Activity (DAPA) tool.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to develop a reliable instrument, the Dogs and Physical Activity (DAPA) tool, for measuring important attributes and scales relating to the dog-walking behavior of dog owners. METHODS: Items measuring dog-specific individual, social environmental, physical environmental, and policy-related factors that affect dog owners' walking with their dogs were assessed for test-retest reliability. Factor analysis was undertaken to demonstrate that the collection of test items had underlying constructs consistent with the theoretical framework. RESULTS: DAPA-tool items had test-retest reliability scores >.7, indicating a high level of stability. Distinct general and dog-specific constructs of subscales measuring dog-supportive features of parks, barriers to dog walking, and behavioral beliefs about the outcomes of regular dog walking were demonstrated through factor analysis. CONCLUSIONS: The DAPA tool is the first comprehensive, reliable tool for measuring important attributes and scales relating to dog owners' physical activity and the context-specific factors that affect owners' walking with their dogs.

Does getting a dog increase recreational walking?

BACKGROUND: This study examines changes in socio-demographic, environmental and intrapersonal factors associated with dog acquisition in non-dog owners at baseline to 12-months follow-up and the effect of dog acquisition on minutes per week of recreational walking. METHODS: RESIDE study participants completed self-administered questionnaires (baseline and 12-months follow-up) measuring physical activity, dog ownership, dog walking behavior as well as environmental, intrapersonal and socio-demographic factors. Analysis was restricted to 'Continuing non-owners' (i.e., non-owners at both baseline and follow-up; n = 681) and 'New dog owners' (i.e., non-owners who acquired a dog by follow-up; n = 92). RESULTS: Overall, 12% of baseline non-owners had acquired a dog at follow-up. Dog acquisition was associated with working and having children at home. Those who changed from single to couple marital status were also more likely to acquire a dog. The increase in minutes of walking for recreation within the neighborhood from baseline to follow-up was 48 minutes/week for new dog owners compared with 12 minutes/week for continuing non-owners (p < 0.05). After adjusting for baseline variables the effect of dog acquisition on the increase in minutes of recreational walking within the neighborhood was 31 minutes (95% CI: 7.39, 54.22; p < 0.01). However, this reduced to 22 minutes (95% CI: -1.53, 45.42; p > 0.05) after further adjustment for change in baseline to follow-up variables. Increase in intention to walk was the main factor contributing to attenuation of the effect of dog acquisition on recreational walking. CONCLUSION: This study used a large representative sample of non-owners to examine the relationship between dog acquisition and recreational walking and provides evidence to suggest that dog acquisition leads to an increase in walking. The most likely mechanism through which dog acquisition facilitates increased physical activity is through behavioral intention via the dog's positive effect on owner's cognitive beliefs about walking, and through the provision of motivation and social support for walking. The results suggest that behavioral intention mediates the relationship between dog acquisition and walking and that dogs may have a significant role in the maintenance of owner walking behavior.

Encouraging physical activity through dog walking: why don't some owners walk with their dog?

OBJECTIVE: To identify factors associated with owners not walking with their dog. METHOD: Dog owners (n=629) taking part in the RESIDE study, Perth, Western Australia completed a self-administered questionnaire in 2005-06 that included items about the dog, dog-owner relationship, dog walking and intrapersonal and environmental factors associated with dog walking. Physical activity data were also collected using NPAQ. RESULTS: Overall, 23% of dog owners did not walk with their dog. More dog walkers achieved 150 min of physical activity/week than owners who did not walk with their dog (72% vs. 44%, p<0.001). Not walking with a dog was significantly more likely in owners who did not perceive that their dog provided motivation (OR 9.60, 95% CI: 4.37, 21.08) or social support (OR 10.84, 95% CI: 5.15, 22.80) to walk, independent of other well-known correlates of physical activity. CONCLUSION: There would be a significant impact on community physical activity levels if owners who do not walk with their dog could be persuaded to begin dog walking. Understanding the factors that discourage or facilitate owners to walk with their dog will assist in tailoring interventions designed to encourage both the uptake and maintenance of regular dog walking.

Understanding dog owners' increased levels of physical activity: results from RESIDE.

We examined the influence of dog ownership on physical activity, independent of demographic, intrapersonal, and perceived environmental factors, in a cross-sectional survey of 1813 adults. Although only 23% of the dog owners walked their dogs 5 or more times per week, the adjusted odds of achieving sufficient physical activity and walking were 57% to 77% higher among dog owners compared with those not owning dogs (P< .05). Dog ownership was independently associated with physical activity and walking. Actively encouraging more dog walking may increase community physical activity levels.

Moderators and mediators of behaviour change in a lifestyle program for treated hypertensives: a randomized controlled trial (ADAPT).

We aimed to examine moderators and mediators of behaviour change in a cognitive lifestyle program for drug-treated overweight hypertensives in Perth, Australia. We collected data at baseline, 4 months (post-intervention) and 1-year follow-up in a randomized controlled trial of a program that focused on weight loss, diet, and exercise. Mediation analysis used regression models that estimate indirect effects with bootstrapped confidence limits. Outcomes examined were saturated fat intake (% energy) and physical activity (hours per week). In total, 90/118 individuals randomized to usual care and 102/123 to the program-completed follow-up. Sex was a moderator of response post-intervention for diet and physical activity, with a greater response among women with usual care and among men with the program. Change in self-efficacy was a mediator of dietary change post-intervention [effect size (ES) -0.055, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.125, -0.005] and at follow-up (ES 0.054, 95% CI -0.127, -0.005), and in physical activity post-intervention (ES 0.059, 95% CI 0.003, 0.147). These findings highlight different responses of men and women to the program, and the importance of self-efficacy as a mediator. Mediators for physical activity in the longer term should be investigated in other models, with appropriate cognitive measurements, in future trials.

A lifestyle program for treated hypertensives improved health-related behaviors and cardiovascular risk factors, a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To assess effects of a cognitively based program on health-related behaviors and cardiovascular risk factors in overweight drug-treated hypertensives. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING: In a clinical trials center, volunteers, recruited by advertisement, were randomized to usual care (N=118) or to a 4-month program (N=123) incorporating weight loss; a low-sodium diet, high in fruit, vegetables, and fish; and increased physical activity. Diet, physical activity, weight, blood lipids, glucose, and insulin were measured at 4 and 16 months. RESULTS: Ninety-eight usual care and 106 program participants completed the 4-month assessment; 90 and 102, respectively, completed follow-up. Using intention-to-treat analysis, relative to usual care, net changes with the program at 4 months were as follows: dietary fat (-2.6% energy; P<0.001); sodium (-290mg/d; P=0.004); energy (-313mJ/d; P=0.005); fish (+2.1 serves/wk; P<0.001); vegetables (+3.0 serves/wk; P<0.001); physical activity (+37min/wk; P=0.004); weight (-2.8kg; P<0.001); waist girth (-3.1cm; P<0.001); total cholesterol (-0.2mmol/L; P=0.017); and triacylglycerols (-0.12mmol/L; P=0.002). One year later, net changes included dietary fat (-2.2% energy; P<0.001); sodium (-150mg/d; P=0.029); fish (+2.0 serves/wk; P<0.001); vegetables (+4.3 serves/wk; P<0.001); weight (-2.5kg; P=0.001); waist girth (-3.1cm; P<0.001); high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (+0.03mmol/L; P=0.031). CONCLUSION: Improvements in behaviors and risk factors, several maintained long term, suggest the potential for long-term benefits in hypertensives.

Dog ownership, health and physical activity: a critical review of the literature.

This review examines the association between dog ownership and adult physical activity levels. While there is evidence to suggest that dog ownership produces considerable health benefit and provides an important form of social support that encourages dog owners to walk, there is limited evidence on the physical environmental and policy-related factors that affect dog owners walking with their dog. With the high level of dog ownership in many industrialized countries, further exploration of the relationship between dog ownership and physical activity levels may be important for preventing declining levels of physical activity and the associated detrimental health effects.

The relationship between organised physical recreation and mental health.

ISSUE ADDRESSED: The mental health benefit of participation in organised physical recreation is investigated as strategies aimed at enhancing mental health and well-being in the community have the potential to decrease social and economic costs. METHODS: A literature review was undertaken to explore evidence relating to the mental health benefits of participation in organised physical recreation. RESULTS: Regular physical activity is widely recognised as protective against the overall burden of disease. Evaluations by government departments in Australia and the United States (US) found that people who participate in sports clubs and organised recreational activity enjoy better mental health, are more alert, and more resilient against the stresses of modern living. Participation in recreational groups and socially supported physical activity is shown to reduce stress, anxiety and depression, and reduce symptoms of Alzheimer's disease, yet more than one-third of adult Australians report no participation in sports and physical recreation. Evaluations of some programs found that physical activity is increased when the social environment is supportive and that the mental and physical benefits of participating in organised recreational activity can be experienced by people other than those directly involved with the sport or activity. CONCLUSION: This review supports the development and maintenance of organised sport and recreational activities that are socially and culturally appropriate. An increase in valid and reliable evaluations of sport and physical recreation programs would contribute to the international body of evidence of the mental health benefits of organised physical recreation.

Development of a reliable measure of walking within and outside the local neighborhood: RESIDE's Neighborhood Physical Activity Questionnaire.

BACKGROUND: The RESIDential Environment project (RESIDE) is a longitudinal study evaluating the impact of a new residential design code on walking. OBJECTIVE: To develop a reliable measure of walking--undertaken within and outside the neighborhood--and overall physical activity. METHODS: A test-retest reliability study was undertaken (n = 82, mean age 39 years). The instrument was based on the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ-short version) and Active Australia Survey. It measured usual frequency and duration of (1) recreational- and transport-related walking within and outside the neighborhood and (2) other vigorous and moderate physical activities. RESULTS: Reliability of recall of whether participants had walked within (k = 0.84) and outside (0.73) the neighborhood was acceptable. Similarly, recall of frequency and duration of transport and recreational-related walking within the neighborhood was excellent (ICC > or = 0.82), as was recall of transport-related walking trips outside the neighborhood (ICC > or = 0.84). Reliability for duration of recreational walking outside the neighborhood was fair to good (ICC = 0.55). The reliability of indices of total physical activity based on MET min/week (ICC = 0.82) and MET min/week dichotomized to 'sufficient' physical activity for health (kappa = 0.67) were both acceptable. CONCLUSIONS: The Neighborhood Physical Activity Questionnaire (NPAQ) is sufficiently reliable for studies examining environmental correlates of walking within the neighborhood.

Effects of a lifestyle programme on ambulatory blood pressure and drug dosage in treated hypertensive patients: a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To assess effects of multifactorial lifestyle modification on antihypertensive drug needs in treated hypertensive individuals. DESIGN: Randomized controlled trial. SETTING: Research studies unit. PARTICIPANTS: Overweight hypertensive patients, receiving one or two antihypertensive drugs, were recruited by advertising, and allocated randomly to a usual care group (controls; n = 118) or a lifestyle modification group (programme group; n = 123). INTERVENTION: A 4-month programme of weight loss, a low-sodium 'Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension'-type diet with added fish, physical activity and moderation of alcohol intake. After 4 months, if mean 24-h ambulatory blood pressure (ABP) was less than 135/85 mmHg, antihypertensive drugs were withdrawn over 4 weeks and long-term home blood pressure monitoring was begun. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Antihypertensive drug requirements, ABP, weight, waist girth at 4 months and 1-year follow-up. RESULTS: Ninety control group and 102 programme group participants completed the study. Mean 24-h ABP changed after 4 months by -1.0/-0.3 +/- 0.5/0.4 mmHg in controls and -4.1/-2.1 +/- 0.7/0.5 mmHg with the lifestyle programme (P < 0.01). At follow-up, changes in the two groups were not significantly different (4.1/1.3 +/- 1.1/1.0 mmHg in controls; 2.5/-0.1 +/- 1.1/0.8 mmHg in the programme group; P = 0.73). At 4 months, drug withdrawal differed significantly between the groups (P = 0.038) in men (control 44%; programme 66%) but not in women (65 and 64%, respectively; P = 0.964). At follow-up, sex-related differences were not significant, and 41% in the control group and 43% in the programme group maintained drug-withdrawal status. With the programme, net weight loss was 3.3 kg (P < 0.001) at 4 months and 3.0 kg (P < 0.001) at follow-up; respective net decreases in waist girth were 3.3 cm (P < 0.001) and 3.5 cm (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: A 4-month multifactorial lifestyle modification in patients with treated hypertension reduced blood pressure in the short-term. Decreased central obesity persisted 1 year later and could reduce overall cardiovascular risk.

An innovative program for changing health behaviours.

Health-related behaviours affecting diet, weight control and physical activity are important for long-term cardiovascular health but behaviour change is difficult to initiate and even more difficult to maintain. We have developed a health promotion program, in which social support has a key role, to encourage a prudent diet, weight control and physical activity. Behaviour change is based on evaluating initial behaviour, weighing up costs and benefits, assessing barriers to change and goal-setting. We first evaluated the program in couples beginning to live together, a group chosen because of the risk of weight gain and decreased physical activity after marriage, readiness to change behaviour at that time in the life course and the opportunity to use partner's support in achieving behaviour change. In an initial short-term study with 39 couples, intake of fat and take-away foods decreased and consumption of fruit, vegetables and reduced fat foods increased. Physical activity increased and there was a 6% fall in blood cholesterol. Further evaluation in 137 couples included assessment after 12 months. A decrease in fat intake and increase in physical activity and fitness seen at the end of the program persisted 1 year later. Lower cholesterol and a trend to lower weight gain and lower blood pressure were also maintained after 12 months. We have modified the program aiming for weight loss, improved dietary habits and increased physical activity in overweight treated hypertensives, supported by their partners. Decreased intake of energy, total and saturated fat, and weight loss seen at the end of the 16 week program was significantly greater in the intervention group than with usual care. Blood pressure fell in the program group at the end of intervention and, in men, withdrawal of antihypertensive drugs was significantly associated with the intervention. Weight loss and a decrease in waist circumference were maintained in the program group up to 16 months after entering the study. This program has the potential for wider application in other at-risk groups.