In silico investigation of the interaction between the voltage-gated potassium channel Kv4.3 and its auxiliary protein KChIP1.

The voltage-gated potassium channel Kv4.3 plays a vital role in shaping the timing, frequency, and backpropagation of electrical signals in the brain and heart by generating fast transient currents at subthreshold membrane potentials in repetitive firing neurons. To achieve its physiological function, Kv4.3 is assisted by auxiliary ß-subunits that become integral parts of the native A-type potassium channels, among which there are the Kv channel-interacting proteins (KChIPs). KChIPs are a family of cytosolic proteins that, when coexpressed with Kv4, lead to higher current density, modulation of channel inactivation and faster recovery from inactivation, while the loss of KChIP function may lead to severe pathological states. Recently, the structural basis of the KChIP1-Kv4.3 interaction was reported by using two similar X-ray crystallographic structures, which supported a crucial role for KChIP1 in enhancing the stability of the Kv4.3 tetrameric assembly, thus helping the trafficking of the channel to the plasma membrane. Here, we investigate through fully atomistic simulations the structure and stability of the human Kv4.3 tetramerization (T1) domain in complex with KChIP1 upon specific mutations located in the first and second interfaces of the complex, as compared to the wild-type (WT). Our results nicely complement the available structural and biophysical information collected so far on these complex variants. In particular, the degree of structural deviations and energetic instability, from small to substantial, observed in these variants with respect to the WT model seems to parallel well the level of channel dysfunction known from electrophysiology data. Our simulations provide an octameric structure of the WT KChIP1-Kv4.3 assembly very similar to the known crystal structures, and, at the same time, highlight the importance of a previously overlooked site of interaction between KChIP1 and the Kv4.3 T1 domain.

Temperature Dependence of the Structure and Dynamics of a Dye-Labeled Lipid in a Planar Phospholipid Bilayer: A Computational Study.

Fluorescent probes are widely employed to label lipids for the investigation of structural and dynamic properties of model and cell membranes through optical microscopy techniques. Although the effect of tagging a lipid with an organic dye is generally assumed to be negligible, optically modified lipids can nonetheless affect the local lipid structure and, in turn, the lipid lateral mobility. To better assess this potential issue, all-atom (MD) molecular dynamics simulations have been performed to study structural and dynamic effects in a model DOPC membrane in the presence of a standard Rhodamine B-labeled DOPE lipid (RHB) as a function of temperature, i.e., 293 K, 303 K, and 320 K. As the temperature is increased, we observe similar changes in the structural properties of both pure DOPC and RHB-DOPC lipid bilayers: an increase of the area per lipid, a reduction of the membrane thickness and a decrease of lipid order parameters. The partial density profile of the RHB headgroups and their orientation within the lipid bilayer confirm the amphiphilic nature of the RHB fluorescent moiety, which mainly partitions in the DOPC glycerol backbone region at each temperature. Moreover, at all temperatures, our results on lipid lateral diffusion support a non-neutral role of the dye with respect to the unlabeled lipid mobility, thus suggesting important implications for optical microscopy studies of lipid membranes.

Getting Drugs through Small Pores: Exploiting the Porins Pathway in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Understanding molecular properties of outer membrane channels of Gram-negative bacteria is of fundamental significance as they are the entry point of polar antibiotics into bacteria. Outer membrane proteomics revealed OccK8 (OprE) to be among the five most expressed substrate specific channels of the clinically important Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The high-resolution X-ray structure and electrophysiology highlighted a very narrow pore. However, experimental in vitro methods showed the transport of natural amino acids and antibiotics, among them ceftazidime. We used molecular dynamics simulations to reveal the importance of the physicochemical properties of ceftazidime in modulating the translocation through OccK8, proposing a structure-function relationship. As in general porins, the internal electric field favors the translocation of polar molecules by gainful energy compensation in the central constriction region. Importantly, the comparatively narrow OccK8 pore can undergo a substrate-induced expansion to accommodate relatively large-sized substrates.

Porin flexibility in Providencia stuartii: cell-surface-exposed loops L5 and L7 are markers of Providencia porin OmpPst1.

Epidemiologically unrelated Providencia stuartii strains isolated in hospitals in the south of France were investigated for their porin sequences and profiles. Noticeable resistance to ß-lactams was found to be associated with production of extended spectrum ß-lactamases or AmpC overproduction, but not metallo-ß-lactamases. At the same time, the expression level of outer membrane porins was unmodified in these isolates. The identity of the amino acid sequences of the major porin OmpPst1 was less than 90% in the tested clinical strains, whereas sequences of the second major porin OmpPst2 were found to be identical in all isolates. Sequence diversity identified in the OmpPst1 porins was mainly located in two cell-surface-exposed loops (L5 and L7): these loops were found to be responsible for 80% of the main movements of the protein. Parallel tempering MD simulations indicated possible coordinated movement of these loops that might affect the electrostatic interaction of the porin with membrane components (e.g. LPS) or with external molecules/surfaces. This suggests that such flexibility of surface-exposed domains of OmpPst1 may participate in bacterial adaptation to the environment.

Rationalizing the permeation of polar antibiotics into Gram-negative bacteria.

The increasing level of antibiotic resistance in Gram-negative bacteria, together with the lack of new potential drug scaffolds in the pipeline, make the problem of infectious diseases a global challenge for modern medicine. The main reason that Gram-negative bacteria are particularly challenging is the presence of an outer cell-protecting membrane, which is not present in Gram-positive species. Such an asymmetric bilayer is a highly effective barrier for polar molecules. Several protein systems are expressed in the outer membrane to control the internal concentration of both nutrients and noxious species, in particular: (i) water-filled channels that modulate the permeation of polar molecules and ions according to concentration gradients, and (ii) efflux pumps to actively expel toxic compounds. Thus, besides expressing specific enzymes for drugs degradation, Gram-negative bacteria can also resist by modulating the influx and efflux of antibiotics, keeping the internal concentration low. However, there are no direct and robust experimental methods capable of measuring the permeability of small molecules, thus severely limiting our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms that ultimately control the permeation of antibiotics through the outer membrane. This is the innovation gap to be filled for Gram-negative bacteria. This review is focused on the permeation of small molecules through porins, considered the main path for the entry of polar antibiotics into Gram-negative bacteria. A fundamental understanding of how these proteins are able to filter small molecules is a prerequisite to design/optimize antibacterials with improved permeation. The level of sophistication of modern molecular modeling algorithms and the advances in new computer hardware has made the simulation of such complex processes possible at the molecular level. In this work we aim to share our experience and perspectives in the context of a multidisciplinary extended collaboration within the IMI-Translocation consortium. The synergistic combination of structural data, in vitro assays and computer simulations has proven to give new insights towards the identification and description of physico-chemical properties modulating permeation. Once similar general rules are identified, we believe that the use of virtual screening techniques will be very helpful in searching for new molecular scaffolds with enhanced permeation, and that molecular modeling will be of fundamental assistance to the optimization stage.

Exploiting the porin pathway for polar compound delivery into Gram-negative bacteria.

BACKGROUND: In Gram-negative bacteria, the outer-membrane represents an additional barrier for antibiotics to permeate inside pathogens. Our inability to come up with novel effective antibiotics mostly relies upon insufficient understanding of the molecular basis behind outer-membrane penetration. RESULTS: Polar antibiotics can permeate through water-filled porins, such as OmpF and OmpC from Escherichia coli. Through molecular modeling, permeation of imipenem and meropenem was found to be strongly dependent upon capability of drugs to properly align their electric dipole to the internal electric field in the restricted region of the pore. Electrostatics differences between OmpF and OmpC, and modifications along a series of OmpC mutants from E. coli-resistant clinical strains identify a 'preorientation' region, which dramatically affects antibiotic pathway. CONCLUSION: A novel perspective is presented, suggesting new molecular properties to be included in drug design.

A kinetic model for molecular diffusion through pores.

The number of pathogens developing multiple drug resistance is ever increasing. The impact on healthcare systems is huge and the need for novel antibiotics as well a new way to develop them is urgent, especially against Gram-negative bacteria. The first defense of these bacteria is the outer membrane, where unspecific protein channels (porins) modulate nutrients passive diffusion. Also polar antibiotics enter through this path and down-regulation and/or mutation of porins are very common in drug resistant strains. Our inability to come up with novel effective antibiotics mostly relies upon the insufficient comprehension of the key molecular features enabling better penetration through porins. Molecular dynamics simulations offer an extraordinary tool in the study of the dynamics of biological systems; however, one of the major drawbacks of this method is that its use is currently restricted to study time scales of the order of microsecond. Enhanced sampling methods like Metadynamics have been recently used to investigate the diffusion of antibiotics through bacterial porins. The main limitation is that dynamical properties cannot be estimated because of the different potential that the systems under study are experiencing. Recently, the scope of Metadynamics has been extended. By applying an a posteriori analysis one can obtain rates of transitions and rate-limiting steps of the process under study, directly comparable with kinetic data extracted from electrophysiology experiments. In this work, we apply this method to the study of the permeability of Escherichia coli's OmpF with respect to Meropenem, finding good agreement with the residence time obtained analyzing experimental current noise. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Membrane Proteins edited by J.C. Gumbart and Sergei Noskov.

Small-Molecule Transport by CarO, an Abundant Eight-Stranded ß-Barrel Outer Membrane Protein from Acinetobacter baumannii.

Outer membrane (OM) ß-barrel proteins composed of 12-18 ß-strands mediate cellular entry of small molecules in Gram-negative bacteria. Small OM proteins with barrels of 10 strands or less are not known to transport small molecules. CarO (carbapenem-associated outer membrane protein) from Acinetobacter baumannii is a small OM protein that has been implicated in the uptake of ornithine and carbapenem antibiotics. Here we report crystal structures of three isoforms of CarO. The structures are very similar and show a monomeric eight-stranded barrel lacking an open channel. CarO has a substantial extracellular domain resembling a glove that contains all the divergent residues between the different isoforms. Liposome swelling experiments demonstrate that full-length CarO and a "loop-less" truncation mutant mediate small-molecule uptake at low levels but that they are unlikely to mediate passage of carbapenem antibiotics. These results are confirmed by biased molecular dynamics simulations that allowed us to quantitatively model the transport of selected small molecules.