Hypoxia effects on glioblastoma progression through YAP/TAZ pathway regulation.

The resistance of glioblastomas (GBM) to standard therapies poses a clinical challenge with limited survival despite interventions. The tumor microenvironment (TME) orchestrates GBM progression, comprising stromal and immune cells and is characterized by extensive hypoxic regions. Hypoxia activates the hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1α) pathway, interacting with the Hippo pathway (YAP/TAZ) in crucial cellular processes. We discuss here the related signaling crosstalk between YAP/TAZ and regions of hypoxia in the TME with particular attention on the MST1/2 and LATS1/2-regulated YAP/TAZ activation, impacting cell proliferation, invasion, and stemness. Moreover, the hypoxia-YAP/TAZ axis influence on angiogenesis, stem cells, and metabolic regulators is defined. By reviewing extracellular matrix alterations activation of YAP/TAZ, modulation of signaling pathways we also discuss the significance of spatial constraints and epigenetic modifications contribution to GBM progression, with potential therapeutic targets in YAP/TAZ-mediated gene regulation. Comprehensive understanding of the hypoxia-Hippo pathway-TME interplay offers insights for novel therapeutic strategies, aiming to provide new directions for treatment.

Substrate stiffness effect on molecular crosstalk of epithelial-mesenchymal transition mediators of human glioblastoma cells.

The complexity of the microenvironment effects on cell response, show accumulating evidence that glioblastoma (GBM) migration and invasiveness are influenced by the mechanical rigidity of their surroundings. The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a well-recognized driving force of the invasive behavior of cancer. However, the primary mechanisms of EMT initiation and progression remain unclear. We have previously showed that certain substrate stiffness can selectively stimulate human GBM U251-MG and GL15 glioblastoma cell lines motility. The present study unifies several known EMT mediators to uncover the reason of the regulation and response to these stiffnesses. Our results revealed that changing the rigidity of the mechanical environment tuned the response of both cell lines through change in morphological features, epithelial-mesenchymal markers (E-, N-Cadherin), EGFR and ROS expressions in an interrelated manner. Specifically, a stiffer microenvironment induced a mesenchymal cell shape, a more fragmented morphology, higher intracellular cytosolic ROS expression and lower mitochondrial ROS. Finally, we observed that cells more motile showed a more depolarized mitochondrial membrane potential. Unravelling the process that regulates GBM cells' infiltrative behavior could provide new opportunities for identification of new targets and less invasive approaches for treatment.

Hybrid Polyelectrolyte Nanocomplexes for Non-Viral Gene Delivery with Favorable Efficacy and Safety Profile.

The development of nanovectors for precise gene therapy is increasingly focusing on avoiding uncontrolled inflammation while still being able to effectively act on the target sites. Herein, we explore the use of non-viral hybrid polyelectrolyte nanocomplexes (hPECs) for gene delivery, which display good transfection efficacy coupled with non-inflammatory properties. Monodisperse hPECs were produced through a layer-by-layer self-assembling of biocompatible and biodegradable polymers. The resulting nanocomplexes had an inner core characterized by an EGFP-encoding plasmid DNA (pDNA) complexed with linear polyethyleneimine or protamine (PEI or PRM) stabilized with lecithin and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and an outer layer consisting of medium-molecular-weight chitosan (CH) combined with tripolyphosphate (TPP). PEI- and PRM-hPECs were able to efficiently protect the genetic cargo from nucleases and to perform a stimuli-responsive release of pDNA overtime, thus guaranteeing optimal transfection efficiency. Importantly, hPECs revealed a highly cytocompatible and a non-inflammatory profile in vitro. These results were further supported by evidence of the weak and unspecific interactions of serum proteins with both hPECs, thus confirming the antifouling properties of their outer shell. Therefore, these hPECs represent promising candidates for the development of effective, safe nanotools for gene delivery.

Spontaneous Coassembly of the Protein Terthiophene into Fluorescent Electroactive Microfibers in 2D and 3D Cell Cultures.

Protein-based microfibers are biomaterials of paramount importance in materials science, nanotechnology, and medicine. Here we describe the spontaneous in situ formation and secretion of nanostructured protein microfibers in 2D and 3D cell cultures of 3T3 fibroblasts and B104 neuroblastoma cells upon treatment with a micromolar solution of either unmodified terthiophene or terthiophene modified by mono-oxygenation (thiophene → thiophene S-oxide) or dioxygenation (thiophene → thiophene S,S-dioxide) of the inner ring. We demonstrate via metabolic cytotoxicity tests that modification to the S-oxide leads to a severe drop in cell viability. By contrast, unmodified terthiophene and the respective S,S-dioxide cause no harm to the cells and lead to the formation and secretion of fluorescent and electroactive protein-fluorophore coassembled microfibers with a large aspect ratio, a micrometer-sized length and width, and a nanometer-sized thickness, as monitored in real-time by laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM). With respect to the microfibers formed by unmodified terthiophene, those formed by the S,S-dioxide display markedly red-shifted fluorescence and an increased n-type character of the material, as shown by macroscopic Kelvin probe in agreement with cyclovoltammetry data. Electrophoretic analyses and Q-TOF mass spectrometry of the isolated microfibers indicate that in all cases the prevalent proteins present are vimentin and histone H4, thus revealing the capability of these fluorophores to selectively coassemble with these proteins. Finally, DFT calculations help to illuminate the fluorophore-fluorophore intermolecular interactions contributing to the formation of the microfibers.

Sterilization of Semiconductive Nanomaterials: The Case of Water-Suspended Poly-3-Hexylthiophene Nanoparticles.

In this work, the feasibility of sterilizing a water suspension of poly-3-hexylthiophene nanoparticles (P3HT-NPs) is investigated using ionizing radiation, either γ-rays or high-energy electrons (e-beam). It is found that regardless of the irradiation source, the size, polydispersity, aggregation stability, and morphology of the NPs are not affected by the treatment. Furthermore, the impact of ionizing radiation on the physicochemical properties of NPs at different absorbed radiation doses (10-25 kGy) and dose rates (kGy time-1 ) is evaluated through different spectroscopic techniques. The results indicate that delivering a high dose of radiations (25 kGy) at a high dose rate, that is, kGy s-1 , as achieved by e-beam irradiation, preserves the characteristics of the polymeric NPs. Differently, the same radiation dose but delivered at a lower dose rate, that is, kGy h-1 , as attained by using a γ-source, can modify the physicochemical properties of the polymer. Sterility tests indicate that an absorbed dose of 10 kGy, delivered either with γ-rays or e-beam, is already sufficient for effective sterilization of the colloidal suspension and for reducing the endotoxin content. Finally, NPs irradiated at different doses, exhibit the same cytocompatibility and cell internalization characteristics in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells of NPs prepared under aseptic conditions.

Biomimetic Nanocarriers for Cancer Target Therapy.

Nanotechnology offers innovative tools for the design of biomimetic nanocarriers for targeted cancer therapy. These nano-systems present several advantages such as cargo's protection and modulation of its release, inclusion of stimuli-responsive elements, and enhanced tumoral accumulation. All together, these nano-systems suffer low therapeutic efficacy in vivo because organisms can recognize and remove foreign nanomaterials. To overcome this important issue, different modifications on nanoparticle surfaces were exploited in order to reach the desired therapeutic efficacy eliciting, also, the response of immune system against cancer cells. For this reason, more recently, a new strategy involving cell membrane-covered nanoparticles for biomedical application has been attracting increasing attention. Membranes from red blood cells, platelets, leukocytes, tumor, and stem cells, have been exploited as biomimetic coatings of nanoparticles for evading clearance or stimulated immune system by maintaining in the same way their targeting capability. In this review, the use of different cell sources as coating of biomimetic nanocarriers for cancer therapy is discussed.

Hybrid Clustered Nanoparticles for Chemo-Antibacterial Combinatorial Cancer Therapy.

Background: A great number of therapeutic limitations, such as chemoresistance, high dosage, and long treatments, are still present in cancer therapy, and are often followed by side effects such as infections, which represent the primary cause of death among patients. Methods: We report pH- and enzymatic-responsive hybrid clustered nanoparticles (HC-NPs), composed of a PCL polymeric core loaded with an anticancer drug, such as Imatinib Mesylate (IM), and coated with biodegradable multilayers embedded with antibacterial and anticancer baby-ship silver NPs, as well as a monoclonal antibody for specific targeting of cancer cells conjugated on the surface. Results: The HC-NPs presented an onion-like structure that serially responded to endogenous stimuli. After internalization into targeted cancer cells, the clustered nanoparticles were able to break up, thanks to intracellular proteases which degraded the biodegradable multilayers and allowed the release of the baby-ship NPs and the IM loaded within the pH-sensible polymer present inside the mothership core. In vitro studies validated the efficiency of HC-NPs in human chronic leukemic cells. This cellular model allowed us to demonstrate specificity and molecular targeting sensitivity, achieved by using a combinatorial approach inside a single nano-platform, instead of free administrations. The combinatory effect of chemotherapic drug and AgNPs in one single nanosystem showed an improved cell death efficacy. In addition, HC-NPs showed a good antibacterial capacity on Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Conclusions: This study shows an important combinatorial anticancer and antimicrobial effect in vitro.

Mechanical Durotactic Environment Enhances Specific Glioblastoma Cell Responses.

Background: A hallmark of glioblastoma is represented by their ability to widely disperse throughout the brain parenchyma. The importance of developing new anti-migratory targets is critical to reduce recurrence and improve therapeutic efficacy. Methods: Polydimethylsiloxane substrates, either mechanically uniform or presenting durotactic cues, were fabricated to assess GBM cell morphological and dynamical response with and without pharmacological inhibition of NNMII contractility, of its upstream regulator ROCK and actin polymerization. Results: Glioma cells mechanotactic efficiency varied depending on the rigidity compliance of substrates. Morphologically, glioma cells on highly rigid and soft bulk substrates displayed bigger and elongated aggregates whereas on durotactic substrates the same cells were homogeneously dispersed with a less elongated morphology. The durotactic cues also induced a motility change, cell phenotype dependent, and with cells being more invasive on stiffer substrates. Pharmacological inhibition of myosin or ROCK revealed a rigidity-insensitivity, unlike inhibition of microfilament contraction and polymerization of F-actin, suggesting that alternative signalling is used to respond to durotactic cues. Conclusions: The presence of a distinct mechanical cue is an important factor in cell migration. Together, our results provide support for a durotactic role of glioma cells that acts through actomyosin contractility to regulate the aggressive properties of GBM cells.

Nanostructuring Iridium Complexes into Crystalline Phosphorescent Nanoparticles: Structural Characterization, Photophysics, and Biological Applications.

One of the key challenges in materials science is to control the properties of a material by directing its supramolecular arrangement. Here we show that iridium complexes, such as FIrpic, Ir-PPY, and Ir-MDQ, can be organized into crystalline and phosphorescent nanoparticles through the nanoprecipitation method, which allows thorough modification of their functional properties. Moreover, we found that it is possible to combine different iridium complexes into a single multicomponent nanostructure, thus creating nanoparticles whose photonic properties derive from the close spatial proximity of the electronic excited states of the different Ir complexes. The morphology of all nanoparticles was fully characterized by microscopic and spectroscopic techniques, and their ordered arrangement was assessed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM) measurements. We demonstrate that the nanostructuring of the complexes influences their optical and redox properties-by promoting a fine-tuning of emission, photoluminescence quantum yield, excited state lifetime, HOMO/LUMO energy levels, and energy-transfer processes-as well as their interaction with living cells. Investigations on glioblastoma U-251 MG cells demonstrate that nanostructuring represents an effective tool to regulate the efficiency of cell loading, cell viability, colocalization, and penetration in 3D spheroids.

Enantiopure polythiophene nanoparticles. Chirality dependence of cellular uptake, intracellular distribution and antimicrobial activity.

The use of intrinsic chiral molecules opens the door to bio-imaging specific tools and to the development of target-therapy. In this work the synthesis and characterization of polythiophenes with alkyl side chains containing one R or S chiral carbon is reported. Enantiopure chiral nanoparticles (R or S NPs) were prepared from the polymers by a reprecipitation method. UV-vis, photoluminescence and circular dichroism spectroscopy of the NPs are described. In vitro analysis and metabolic assays show that both R and S NPs are efficiently taken-up by fibroblast cells without signs of toxicity. SDS-PAGE experiments show that formation of hard protein 'corona' enhances the chirality difference between nanoparticles. Co-localization experiments demonstrate that the cells are able to discriminate between the enantiomeric R and S nanoparticles. Finally, experiments carried out on Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria show that the enantiomeric NPs display different antibacterial activity.

Wool-Like Hollow Polymeric Nanoparticles for CML Chemo-Combinatorial Therapy.

Chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) is caused by the BCR-ABL oncogene, which encodes the constitutively active BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase. Targeted therapy with tyrosine-kinase inhibitors induces a partial cytogenetic response in most patients. Nanosystems can represent an opportunity for combinatorial therapy with the capacity to simultaneously release different therapeutic agents, checking the pharmacokinetic properties. In this work, we have developed a novel poly-(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) nanosystem for combinatorial therapy in CML, composed of a biodegradable pH sensitive core releasing Nilotinib (Nil) and an enzymatic sensitive outer shell releasing Imatinib Mesylate (IM), resulting in wool-like nanoparticles (NPs). The resulting double loaded wool-like hollow PCL NPs showed a high dual-drug encapsulation efficiency, pH and enzymatic sensitivity and synchronized drug release capability. The combinatorial delivery of IM and Nil exhibited an importantly reduced IC50 value of IM and Nil on leukaemia cells compared to single free drugs administration. In vitro results, showed that combinatorial nanomixures preserved the biological activity of loaded drugs for extensive time windows and led to a constant release of active drug. In addition, the combination of IM and Nil in single PCL NPs have shown a more therapeutic efficiency at a low dose with respect to the single drug nanomixures, confirming that both drugs reached the target cell precisely, maximizing the cytotoxicity while minimizing the chances of cell resistance to drugs.

Therapeutic PCL scaffold for reparation of resected osteosarcoma defect.

Osteosarcomas are highly malignant tumors, which develop rapid growth and local infiltration, inducing metastases that spread primarily in the lung. Treatment of these tumors is mainly based on pre- and post-operative chemotherapy and surgery of the primary tumor. Surgical resection though, generates bone defects. Reparation of these weaknesses presents formidable challenges to orthopedic surgery. Medicine regenerative grafts that act as both tumor therapy with constant local drug delivery and tissue regeneration may provide a new prospect to address this need. These implants can provide sustained drug release at the cancer area, decreasing systemic second effects such as inflammation, and a filling of the resected tissues with regenerative biomaterials. In this study microporous poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) scaffolds have been developed for sustained local release of anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone (DXM), used as drug model, in cancer medicine regenerative field. The microporous PCL matrix of the scaffolds supported the attachment, proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of osteoblast-like cells, while the polyelectrolyte multilayers, anchored to the inner pore surfaces, sustained locally DXM release. These microporous scaffolds demonstrate the ability to deliver DXM as a localized tumor therapy and to promote proliferation and differentiation of osteoblast-like cells in vitro.

Coupled delivery of imatinib mesylate and doxorubicin with nanoscaled polymeric vectors for a sustained downregulation of BCR-ABL in chronic myeloid leukemia.

In this work, we have investigated the potential benefits of combining biodegradable pH sensitive core-shell PCL NPs loaded with IM and enzyme sensitive polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) loaded with doxorubicin (DOX). Our in vitro studies confirmed the excellent antileukemic activity of dual drug loaded nanoparticles on CML cells. As compared with a drug alone, co-treatment with IM and DOX loaded in nanoparticles allowed a sustained downregulation of BCR-ABL and significant CML stem cell death. This furthermore showed that couple formulation of nanoparticles enhanced the drugs' kinetics and efficacy, combined with the pH sensibility of core-shell PCL NPs loaded with IM and enzyme sensitive polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) loaded with DOX. Our study demonstrates that dual drug loaded nanoparticles work in a synergistic manner, lowering the dose and confirming that both drugs reach the target cell specifically, maximizing the cytotoxicity while minimizing the chances of cell resistance to any one drug.

mRNA delivery using non-viral PCL nanoparticles.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) provides a promising alternative to plasmid DNA as a genetic material for delivery in non-viral gene therapy strategies. However, it is difficult to introduce mRNA in vivo mainly because of the instability of mRNA under physiological conditions. Here, mRNA-protamine complex encapsulated poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) nanoparticles (NPs) are proposed for the intracellular delivery of mRNA molecules. The nanoparticles with a size of about 247 nm in diameter have a core-shell structure with an mRNA-containing inner core surrounded by PCL layers, providing high stability and stealth properties to the nanoparticles. The partial neutralization of the negatively charged mRNA molecules with the cationic protamine allows one to modulate the release kinetics in a pH-dependent manner. At pH 7.4, mimicking the conditions found in the systemic circulation, only 25% of the mRNA is released after 48 hours post incubation, whereas at pH 5.0, recreating the cell endosomal environment, about 60% of the mRNA molecules are released within the same time window post incubation. These NPs show no cytotoxicity to NIH 3T3 fibroblasts, HeLa cells and MG63 osteoblasts up to 8 days of incubation. Given the stability, preferential release behavior, and well-known biocompatibility properties of PCL nanostructures, our non-viral PCL nanoparticles are a promising system that simultaneously resolved the two major problems of mRNA introduction and the instability, opening the door to various new therapeutic strategies using mRNA.

Unconventional tailorable patterning by solvent-assisted surface-tension-driven lithography.

Unconventional nanopatterning methods are emerging as powerful tools for the development of controlled shapes and ordered morphology of nanostructured materials with novel properties and tailorable functions. Here, we report a simple yet straightforward and efficient approach for patterning through unconventional dewetting that involves surface tension driven process. Using this innovative approach, we have successfully demonstrated to be able to prepare surface micro-patterns over large areas deposited through Eu(3+):TiO2 nanoparticles providing rational control over the local nucleation of nanoparticles. Remarkably, these features could be addressed by polar or apolar solvents, suggesting potential applications in bottom-up nanodevices. This paper represents the first such attempt to create an inorganic materials non-lithographic template for the directed deposition of Eu(3+):TiO2 or related metal oxides. The technique, which is driven by the unique chemical properties and geometrical layout of the underlying patterned micrometer-sized templates, enables the construction of micro- and nano-structuration of dispersed inorganic functional materials suitable for electrooptical and photonic applications.

Biocompatible and biodegradable fluorescent microfibers physiologically secreted by live cells upon spontaneous uptake of thiophene fluorophore.

Live cells can form multifunctional and environmentally responsive multiscale assemblies of living and non-living components. We recently reported the results of a unique approach to introduce supplementary properties, fluorescence in particular, into fibrillar proteins produced by live fibroblasts and extruded into the ECM. In this work, we demonstrate that the physiological secretion of fluorescent nanostructured microfibers upon the spontaneous uptake of the appropriate fluorophore extends to living cells derived by different tissue contexts. We also show that live cells seeded on fluorescent microfibers have a different fate in terms of the cellular morphology, cytoskeleton rearrangement and viability. These results suggest that the microfibers, which are biocompatible and biodegradable, can be used as multiscale biomaterials to direct the cell behaviour.

Influence of electrotaxis on cell behaviour.

Understanding the mechanism of cell migration and interaction with the microenvironment is not only of critical significance to the function and biology of cells, but also has extreme relevance and impact on physiological processes and diseases such as morphogenesis, wound healing, neuron guidance, and cancer metastasis. External guidance factors such as topography and physical cues of the microenvironment promote directional migration and can target specific changes in cell motility and signalling mechanisms. Recent studies have shown that cells can directionally respond to applied electric fields (EFs), in both in vitro and in vivo settings, a phenomenon called electrotaxis. However, the exact cellular mechanisms for sensing electrical signals are still not fully well understood, and it is thus far unknown how cells recognize and respond to electric fields, although some studies have suggested that electro-migration of some cell surface receptors and ion channels in cells could be involved. Applied electric fields may have a potential clinical role in guiding cell migration and present a more precise manageability to change the magnitude and direction of the electric field than most other guidance cues such as chemical cues. Here we present a review of recent studies used for studying electrotaxis to point out similarities, identify points of disagreement, and stimulate new directions for investigation. Insights into the mechanisms by which applied EFs direct cell migration, morphological change and development will enable current and future therapeutic applications to be optimized.

Micropatterned polyelectrolyte nanofilms promote alignment and myogenic differentiation of C2C12 cells in standard growth media.

Alignment of skeletal myoblasts is considered a critical step during myotube formation. The C2C12 cell line is frequently used as a model of skeletal muscle differentiation that can be induced by lowering the serum concentration in standard culture flasks. In order to mimic the striated architectures of skeletal muscles in vitro, micro-patterning techniques and surface engineering have been proven as useful approaches for promoting elongation and alignment of C2C12 myoblasts, thereby enhancing the outgrowth of multi-nucleated myotubes upon switching from growth media (GM) to differentiative media (DM). Herein, a layer-by-layer (LbL) polyelectrolyte multilayer deposition was combined with a micro-molding in capillaries (MIMIC) method to simultaneously provide biochemical and geometrical instructive cues that induced the formation of tightly apposed and parallel arrays of differentiating myotubes from C2C12 cells maintained in GM media for 15 days. This study focuses on two different types of patterned/self-assembled nanofilms based on alternated layers of poly (allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH)/poly(sodium 4-styrene-sulfonate) (PSS) as biocompatible but not biodegradable polymeric structures, or poly-L-arginine sulfate salt (pARG)/dextran sulfate sodium salt (DXS) as both biocompatible and biodegradable surfaces. The influence of these microstructures as well as of the nanofilm composition on C2C12 skeletal muscle cells' differentiation and viability was evaluated and quantified, pointing to give a reference for skeletal muscle regenerative potential in culture conditions that do not promote it. At this regard, our results validate PEM microstructured devices, to a greater extent for (PAH/PSS)5-coated microgrooves, as biocompatible and innovative tools for tissue engineering applications and molecular dissection of events controlling C2C12 skeletal muscle regeneration without switching to their optimal differentiative culture media in vitro.