N6-methyladenosine modification is not a general trait of viral RNA genomes.

Despite the nuclear localization of the m6A machinery, the genomes of multiple exclusively-cytoplasmic RNA viruses, such as chikungunya (CHIKV) and dengue (DENV), are reported to be extensively m6A-modified. However, these findings are mostly based on m6A-Seq, an antibody-dependent technique with a high rate of false positives. Here, we address the presence of m6A in CHIKV and DENV RNAs. For this, we combine m6A-Seq and the antibody-independent SELECT and nanopore direct RNA sequencing techniques with functional, molecular, and mutagenesis studies. Following this comprehensive analysis, we find no evidence of m6A modification in CHIKV or DENV transcripts. Furthermore, depletion of key components of the host m6A machinery does not affect CHIKV or DENV infection. Moreover, CHIKV or DENV infection has no effect on the m6A machinery's localization. Our results challenge the prevailing notion that m6A modification is a general feature of cytoplasmic RNA viruses and underscore the importance of validating RNA modifications with orthogonal approaches.

Controlling arbovirus infection: high-throughput transcriptome and proteome insights.

Arboviruses pose a significant threat to public health globally, demanding innovative approaches for their control. For this, a better understanding of the complex web of interactions established in arbovirus-infected mosquitoes is fundamental. High-throughput analyses allow a genome-wide view of arbovirus-induced alterations at different gene expression levels. This review provides a comprehensive perspective into the current literature in transcriptome and proteome landscapes in mosquitoes infected with arboviruses. It also proposes a coordinated research effort to define the critical nodes that determine arbovirus infection and transmission.

Schlafen 12 restricts HIV-1 latency reversal by a codon-usage dependent post-transcriptional block in CD4+ T cells.

Latency is a major barrier towards virus elimination in HIV-1-infected individuals. Yet, the mechanisms that contribute to the maintenance of HIV-1 latency are incompletely understood. Here we describe the Schlafen 12 protein (SLFN12) as an HIV-1 restriction factor that establishes a post-transcriptional block in HIV-1-infected cells and thereby inhibits HIV-1 replication and virus reactivation from latently infected cells. The inhibitory activity is dependent on the HIV-1 codon usage and on the SLFN12 RNase active sites. Within HIV-1-infected individuals, SLFN12 expression in PBMCs correlated with HIV-1 plasma viral loads and proviral loads suggesting a link with the general activation of the immune system. Using an RNA FISH-Flow HIV-1 reactivation assay, we demonstrate that SLFN12 expression is enriched in infected cells positive for HIV-1 transcripts but negative for HIV-1 proteins. Thus, codon-usage dependent translation inhibition of HIV-1 proteins participates in HIV-1 latency and can restrict the amount of virus release after latency reversal.

CHIKV infection reprograms codon optimality to favor viral RNA translation by altering the tRNA epitranscriptome.

Ample evidence indicates that codon usage bias regulates gene expression. How viruses, such as the emerging mosquito-borne Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), express their genomes at high levels despite an enrichment in rare codons remains a puzzling question. Using ribosome footprinting, we analyze translational changes that occur upon CHIKV infection. We show that CHIKV infection induces codon-specific reprogramming of the host translation machinery to favor the translation of viral RNA genomes over host mRNAs with an otherwise optimal codon usage. This reprogramming was mostly apparent at the endoplasmic reticulum, where CHIKV RNAs show high ribosome occupancy. Mechanistically, it involves CHIKV-induced overexpression of KIAA1456, an enzyme that modifies the wobble U34 position in the anticodon of tRNAs, which is required for proper decoding of codons that are highly enriched in CHIKV RNAs. Our findings demonstrate an unprecedented interplay of viruses with the host tRNA epitranscriptome to adapt the host translation machinery to viral production.

Macrophage inflammation resolution requires CPEB4-directed offsetting of mRNA degradation.

Chronic inflammation is a major cause of disease. Inflammation resolution is in part directed by the differential stability of mRNAs encoding pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory factors. In particular, tristetraprolin (TTP)-directed mRNA deadenylation destabilizes AU-rich element (ARE)-containing mRNAs. However, this mechanism alone cannot explain the variety of mRNA expression kinetics that are required to uncouple degradation of pro-inflammatory mRNAs from the sustained expression of anti-inflammatory mRNAs. Here, we show that the RNA-binding protein CPEB4 acts in an opposing manner to TTP in macrophages: it helps to stabilize anti-inflammatory transcripts harboring cytoplasmic polyadenylation elements (CPEs) and AREs in their 3'-UTRs, and it is required for the resolution of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-triggered inflammatory response. Coordination of CPEB4 and TTP activities is sequentially regulated through MAPK signaling. Accordingly, CPEB4 depletion in macrophages impairs inflammation resolution in an LPS-induced sepsis model. We propose that the counterbalancing actions of CPEB4 and TTP, as well as the distribution of CPEs and AREs in their target mRNAs, define transcript-specific decay patterns required for inflammation resolution. Thus, these two opposing mechanisms provide a fine-tuning control of inflammatory transcript destabilization while maintaining the expression of the negative feedback loops required for efficient inflammation resolution; disruption of this balance can lead to disease.

Structural determinants of TRPV4 inhibition and identification of new antagonists with antiviral activity.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) cation channel participates in multiple physiological processes and is also at the core of different diseases, making this channel an interesting pharmacological target with therapeutic potential. However, little is known about the structural elements governing its inhibition. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: We have now combined in silico drug discovery and molecular dynamics simulation based on Xenopus tropicalis xTRPV4 structure with functional studies measuring cell Ca2+ influx mediated by human TRPV4 channel to characterize the binding site of known TRPV4 inhibitors and to identify novel small molecule channel modulators. KEY RESULTS: We have found that the inhibitor HC067047 binds to a pocket conformed by residues from S2-S3 linker (xTRPV4-D542), S4 (xTRPV4-M583 and Y587 and S5 (xTRPV4-D609 and F613). This pocket was also used for structure-based virtual screening in the search of novel channel modulators. Forty potential hits were selected based on the lower docking scores (from ~250,000 compounds) and their effect upon TRPV4 functionally tested. Three were further analysed for stability using molecular dynamics simulation and functionally tested on TRPV4 channels carrying mutations in the binding pocket. Compound NSC151066, shown to require residue xTRPV4-M583 for its inhibitory effect, presented an IC50 of 145 nM and demonstrated to be an effective antiviral against Zika virus with a potency similar to HC067047. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Together, we propose structural insights into the inhibition of TRPV4 and how this information can be used for the design of novel channel modulators. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed issue on Structure Guided Pharmacology of Membrane Proteins (BJP 75th Anniversary). To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v179.14/issuetoc.

Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Model for the Treatment of Dengue Infections Applied to the Broad Spectrum Antiviral Soraphen A.

While a drug treatment is unavailable, the global incidence of Dengue virus (DENV) infections and its associated severe manifestations continues to rise. We report the construction of the first physiologically based pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PBPK/PD) model that predicts viremia levels in relevant target organs based on preclinical data with the broad spectrum antiviral soraphen A (SorA), an inhibitor of the host cell target acetyl-CoA-carboxylase. SorA was highly effective against DENV in vitro (EC50 = 4.7 nM) and showed in vivo efficacy by inducing a significant reduction of viral load in the spleen and liver of IFNAR-/- mice infected with DENV-2. PBPK/PD predictions for SorA matched well with the experimental infection data. Transfer to a human PBPK/PD model for DENV to mimic a clinical scenario predicted a reduction in viremia by more than one log10 unit for an intravenous infusion regimen of SorA. The PBPK/PD model is applicable to any DENV drug lead and, thus, represents a valuable tool to accelerate and facilitate DENV drug discovery and development.

From A to m6A: The Emerging Viral Epitranscriptome.

There are over 100 different chemical RNA modifications, collectively known as the epitranscriptome. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most commonly found internal RNA modification in cellular mRNAs where it plays important roles in the regulation of the mRNA structure, stability, translation and nuclear export. This modification is also found in viral RNA genomes and in viral mRNAs derived from both RNA and DNA viruses. A growing body of evidence indicates that m6A modifications play important roles in regulating viral replication by interacting with the cellular m6A machinery. In this review, we will exhaustively detail the current knowledge on m6A modification, with an emphasis on its function in virus biology.

Low Zinc Levels at Admission Associates with Poor Clinical Outcomes in SARS-CoV-2 Infection.

BACKGROUND: Zinc is an essential micronutrient that impacts host-pathogen interplay at infection. Zinc balances immune responses, and also has a proven direct antiviral action against some viruses. Importantly, zinc deficiency (ZD) is a common condition in elderly and individuals with chronic diseases, two groups with an increased risk for severe severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outcomes. We hypothesize that serum zinc content (SZC) influences COVID-19 disease progression, and thus might represent a useful biomarker. METHODS: We ran an observational cohort study with 249 COVID-19 patients admitted in Hospital del Mar. We have studied COVID-19 severity and progression attending to SZC at admission. In parallel, we have studied severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) replication in the Vero E6 cell line modifying zinc concentrations. FINDINGS: Our study demonstrates a correlation between serum zinc levels and COVID-19 outcome. Serum zinc levels lower than 50 µg/dL at admission correlated with worse clinical presentation, longer time to reach stability, and higher mortality. Our in vitro results indicate that low zinc levels favor viral expansion in SARS-CoV-2 infected cells. INTERPRETATION: Low SZC is a risk factor that determines COVID-19 outcome. We encourage performing randomized clinical trials to study zinc supplementation as potential prophylaxis and treatment with people at risk of zinc deficiency.

Uncovering de novo gene birth in yeast using deep transcriptomics.

De novo gene origination has been recently established as an important mechanism for the formation of new genes. In organisms with a large genome, intergenic and intronic regions provide plenty of raw material for new transcriptional events to occur, but little is know about how de novo transcripts originate in more densely-packed genomes. Here, we identify 213 de novo originated transcripts in Saccharomyces cerevisiae using deep transcriptomics and genomic synteny information from multiple yeast species grown in two different conditions. We find that about half of the de novo transcripts are expressed from regions which already harbor other genes in the opposite orientation; these transcripts show similar expression changes in response to stress as their overlapping counterparts, and some appear to translate small proteins. Thus, a large fraction of de novo genes in yeast are likely to co-evolve with already existing genes.

Host-derived circular RNAs display proviral activities in Hepatitis C virus-infected cells.

Viruses subvert macromolecular pathways in infected host cells to aid in viral gene amplification or to counteract innate immune responses. Roles for host-encoded, noncoding RNAs, including microRNAs, have been found to provide pro- and anti-viral functions. Recently, circular RNAs (circRNAs), that are generated by a nuclear back-splicing mechanism of pre-mRNAs, have been implicated to have roles in DNA virus-infected cells. This study examines the circular RNA landscape in uninfected and hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected liver cells. Results showed that the abundances of distinct classes of circRNAs were up-regulated or down-regulated in infected cells. Identified circRNAs displayed pro-viral effects. One particular up-regulated circRNA, circPSD3, displayed a very pronounced effect on viral RNA abundances in both hepatitis C virus- and Dengue virus-infected cells. Though circPSD3 has been shown to bind factor eIF4A3 that modulates the cellular nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) pathway, circPSD3 regulates RNA amplification in a pro-viral manner at a post-translational step, while eIF4A3 exhibits the anti-viral property of the NMD pathway. Findings from the global analyses of the circular RNA landscape argue that pro-, and likely, anti-viral functions are executed by circRNAs that modulate viral gene expression as well as host pathways. Because of their long half-lives, circRNAs likely play hitherto unknown, important roles in viral pathogenesis.

Extensive post-transcriptional buffering of gene expression in the response to severe oxidative stress in baker's yeast.

Cells responds to diverse stimuli by changing the levels of specific effector proteins. These changes are usually examined using high throughput RNA sequencing data (RNA-Seq); transcriptional regulation is generally assumed to directly influence protein abundances. However, the correlation between RNA-Seq and proteomics data is in general quite limited owing to differences in protein stability and translational regulation. Here we perform RNA-Seq, ribosome profiling and proteomics analyses in baker's yeast cells grown in rich media and oxidative stress conditions to examine gene expression regulation at various levels. With the exception of a small set of genes involved in the maintenance of the redox state, which are regulated at the transcriptional level, modulation of protein expression is largely driven by changes in the relative ribosome density across conditions. The majority of shifts in mRNA abundance are compensated by changes in the opposite direction in the number of translating ribosomes and are predicted to result in no net change at the protein level. We also identify a subset of mRNAs which is likely to undergo specific translational repression during stress and which includes cell cycle control genes. The study suggests that post-transcriptional buffering of gene expression may be more common than previously anticipated.

The exonuclease Xrn1 activates transcription and translation of mRNAs encoding membrane proteins.

The highly conserved 5'-3' exonuclease Xrn1 regulates gene expression in eukaryotes by coupling nuclear DNA transcription to cytosolic mRNA decay. By integrating transcriptome-wide analyses of translation with biochemical and functional studies, we demonstrate an unanticipated regulatory role of Xrn1 in protein synthesis. Xrn1 promotes translation of a specific group of transcripts encoding membrane proteins. Xrn1-dependence for translation is linked to poor structural RNA contexts for translation initiation, is mediated by interactions with components of the translation initiation machinery and correlates with an Xrn1-dependence for mRNA localization at the endoplasmic reticulum, the translation compartment of membrane proteins. Importantly, for this group of mRNAs, Xrn1 stimulates transcription, mRNA translation and decay. Our results uncover a crosstalk between the three major stages of gene expression coordinated by Xrn1 to maintain appropriate levels of membrane proteins.

Regional and subtype-dependent miRNA signatures in sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease are accompanied by alterations in miRNA silencing machinery and biogenesis.

Increasing evidence indicates that microRNAs (miRNAs) are contributing factors to neurodegeneration. Alterations in miRNA signatures have been reported in several neurodegenerative dementias, but data in prion diseases are restricted to ex vivo and animal models. The present study identified significant miRNA expression pattern alterations in the frontal cortex and cerebellum of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD) patients. These changes display a highly regional and disease subtype-dependent regulation that correlates with brain pathology. We demonstrate that selected miRNAs are enriched in sCJD isolated Argonaute(Ago)-binding complexes in disease, indicating their incorporation into RNA-induced silencing complexes, and further suggesting their contribution to disease-associated gene expression changes. Alterations in the miRNA-mRNA regulatory machinery and perturbed levels of miRNA biogenesis key components in sCJD brain samples reported here further implicate miRNAs in sCJD gene expression (de)regulation. We also show that a subset of sCJD-altered miRNAs are commonly changed in Alzheimer's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies and fatal familial insomnia, suggesting potential common mechanisms underlying these neurodegenerative processes. Additionally, we report no correlation between brain and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) miRNA-profiles in sCJD, indicating that CSF-miRNA profiles do not faithfully mirror miRNA alterations detected in brain tissue of human prion diseases. Finally, utilizing a sCJD MM1 mouse model, we analyzed the miRNA deregulation patterns observed in sCJD in a temporal manner. While fourteen sCJD-related miRNAs were validated at clinical stages, only two of those were changed at early symptomatic phase, suggesting that the miRNAs altered in sCJD may contribute to later pathogenic processes. Altogether, the present work identifies alterations in the miRNA network, biogenesis and miRNA-mRNA silencing machinery in sCJD, whereby contributions to disease mechanisms deserve further investigation.

Hepatitis C virus plays with fire and yet avoids getting burned. A review for clinicians on processing bodies and stress granules.

Over the last few years, many reports have defined several types of RNA cell granules composed of proteins and messenger RNA (mRNA) that regulate gene expression on a post-transcriptional level. Processing bodies (P-bodies) and stress granules (SGs) are among the best-known RNA granules, only detectable when they accumulate into very dynamic cytosolic foci. Recently, a tight association has been found between positive-stranded RNA viruses, including hepatitis C virus (HCV), and these granules. The present article offers a comprehensive review on the complex and paradoxical relationship between HCV, P-bodies and SGs from a translational perspective. Despite the fact that components of P-bodies and SGs have assiduously controlled mRNA expression, either by sequestration or degradation, for thousands of years, HCV has learned how to dangerously exploit certain of them for its own benefit in an endless biological war. Thus, HCV has gained the ability to hack ancient host machineries inherited from prokaryotic times. While P-bodies and SGs are crucial to the HCV cycle, in the interferon-free era we still lack detailed knowledge of the mechanisms involved, processes that may underlie the long-term complications of HCV infection.

The Myxobacterial Metabolite Soraphen A Inhibits HIV-1 by Reducing Virus Production and Altering Virion Composition.

Soraphen A is a myxobacterial metabolite that blocks the acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase of the host and was previously identified as a novel HIV inhibitor. Here, we report that soraphen A acts by reducing virus production and altering the gp120 virion content, impacting entry capacity and infectivity. These effects are partially reversed by addition of palmitic acid, suggesting that inhibition of HIV envelope palmitoylation is one of the mechanisms of antiviral action.

Translation control: Learning from viruses, again.

Viruses are powerful tools to uncover cellular processes. Through viral studies we have recently identified a novel translational control mechanism that involves the DEAD-box helicase Dhh1/DDX6 and RNA folding within coding sequences (CDSs). All Dhh1-dependent mRNAs, viral and cellular ones, (i) contain long and highly structured CDSs, (ii) are directly bound by Dhh1 with a specific pattern, (iii) are activated at the translation initiation step and (iv) express proteins associated with the endoplasmic reticulum. The obtained results uncover a novel layer of translation regulation associated with translation at the endoplasmic reticulum conserved from yeast to humans and hijacked by viruses.

Oligonucleotide-Lipid Conjugates Forming G-Quadruplex Structures Are Potent and Pangenotypic Hepatitis C Virus Entry Inhibitors In Vitro and Ex Vivo.

A hepatitis C virus (HCV) epidemic affecting HIV-infected men who have sex with men (MSM) is expanding worldwide. In spite of the improved cure rates obtained with the new direct-acting antiviral drug (DAA) combinations, the high rate of reinfection within this population calls urgently for novel preventive interventions. In this study, we determined in cell culture and ex vivo experiments with human colorectal tissue that lipoquads, G-quadruplex DNA structures fused to cholesterol, are efficient HCV pangenotypic entry and cell-to-cell transmission inhibitors. Thus, lipoquads may be promising candidates for the development of rectally applied gels to prevent HCV transmission.

A novel translational control mechanism involving RNA structures within coding sequences.

The impact of RNA structures in coding sequences (CDS) within mRNAs is poorly understood. Here, we identify a novel and highly conserved mechanism of translational control involving RNA structures within coding sequences and the DEAD-box helicase Dhh1. Using yeast genetics and genome-wide ribosome profiling analyses, we show that this mechanism, initially derived from studies of the Brome Mosaic virus RNA genome, extends to yeast and human mRNAs highly enriched in membrane and secreted proteins. All Dhh1-dependent mRNAs, viral and cellular, share key common features. First, they contain long and highly structured CDSs, including a region located around nucleotide 70 after the translation initiation site; second, they are directly bound by Dhh1 with a specific binding distribution; and third, complementary experimental approaches suggest that they are activated by Dhh1 at the translation initiation step. Our results show that ribosome translocation is not the only unwinding force of CDS and uncover a novel layer of translational control that involves RNA helicases and RNA folding within CDS providing novel opportunities for regulation of membrane and secretome proteins.