Tumor Microenvironment and its Implications for Antitumor Immunity in Cholangiocarcinoma: Future Perspectives for Novel Therapies.

The incidence of cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) has been increasing over the past few years. Although there are surgery, chemotherapy and other conventional treatment methods, the effect is not as expected. At present, immunotherapy has become the research frontier of cancer treatment, and CCA tumor microenvironment (TME) is becoming a hot exploration direction of immunobiology. TME can affect tumor progression through changes in metabolism, secretion and immunity. Accordingly, understanding the role played by immune cells and stromal cells in TME is important for the study of CCA immunotherapy. This review will discuss the interactions between immune cells (including CD8+ T cells, CD4+ T cells, macrophages, natural killer cells, dendritic cells, myeloid suppressor cells, mast cells, and neutrophils) and stromal cells (including cancer-associated fibroblasts, endothelial cells) in the TME of CCA. In addition, we will also discuss current research results on TME of CCA and recent advances in immunotherapy.

Hyperphosphorylated tau mediates neuronal death by inducing necroptosis and inflammation in Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND: Progressive neuronal death is the key pathological feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the neuronal death in AD patients have not been fully elucidated. Necroptosis reportedly activates and induces neuronal death in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD); however, the main mediators and mechanisms underlying necroptosis induction in AD remain elusive. METHODS: The function of hyperphosphorylated tau (pTau) in inducing necroptosis in neuronal cell was examined using Western blotting, RT-PCR and flow cytometry. Tau-induced inflammation was identified via RNA sequencing and transwell assay. Pharmacological methods and CRISPR-Cas9 technology were used to verify the role of necrosome proteins in pTau-stimulated neuronal death and inflammation. TauP301S model mice were treated with Nec-1 s to evaluate the role of necroptosis in tau pathology. RESULTS: Hyperphosphorylated tau could induce necroptosis in neuronal cells by promoting the formation of the RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL necrosome. In addition, pTau significantly stimulated cell-autonomous overexpression of cytokines and chemokines via the intracellular nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway. Importantly, the RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL axis was essential for the pTau-mediated NF-κB activation and cytokine storm. Furthermore, necroptosis stimulation, NF-κB activation, and cytokine induction have been detected in TauP301S mice and blocking necroptosis markedly ameliorated behavioral defects and excessive neuroinflammation in AD mice. CONCLUSIONS: Our study, for the first time, revealed that pTau contributes to neuronal death by inducing necroptosis and inflammation, mediated by activating the RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL and NF-κB pathways, thereby delineating the hierarchical molecular network of neuronal necroptosis induction in AD.

ZEB2/TWIST1/PRMT5/NuRD Multicomplex Contributes to the Epigenetic Regulation of EMT and Metastasis in Colorectal Carcinoma.

(1) Background: The EMT plays a crucial role in tumor metastasis, which is the major cause for colorectal carcinoma-related mortality. However, the underlying regulators and mechanisms of EMT in CRC metastasis are still poorly understood; (2) Methods: The transcriptional regulators of EMT in CRC and their functions were examined using RT2212PCR, Western blotting, and luciferase reporter assay. The components of ZEB2/TWIST1 complex and their mutual interactions were identified via affinity purification, mass spectrometry, co-immunoprecipitation, and pull-down experiments. The functional mechanisms of ZEB2/TWIST1/PRMT5/NuRD axis were determined by chromatin immunoprecipitation and luciferase reporter assay. The contribution of ZEB2/TWIST1/PRMT5/NuRD complex in the CRC metastasis was investigated using wound healing, transwell assay, and in vivo xenograft mouse model; (3) Results: We found that ZEB2 and TWIST1 were both significantly upregulated in CRC tissues and EMT of CRC cells. ZEB2 could recruit TWIST1 to the E-cadherin promoter and synergistically repressed its transcription. In addition, ZEB2 physically interacted with TWIST1, PRMT5, and the nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase (NuRD) complex to form a novel repressive multicomplex, leading to epigenetic silencing of E-cadherin in CRC cells. Notably, the combined inhibition of ZEB2 and TWIST1 and epigenetic inhibition markedly reduced CRC metastasis in mice; (4) Conclusions: We revealed for the first time that ZEB2 could recruit TWIST1, PRMT5, and NuRD to form a repressive multicomplex and epigenetically suppresses the transcription of E-cadherin, thereby inducing the EMT process and metastasis in CRC. Our results also confirmed the therapeutic potential of epigenetic inhibitors in CRC.

Stimulation Effects and Mechanisms of Different Adjuvants on a Norovirus P Particle-Based Active Amyloid-ß Vaccine.

BACKGROUND: Adjuvants are important components of vaccines and effectively enhance the immune response of specific antigens. However, the role of adjuvants or combinations of adjuvants in stimulating immunogenicity of the amyloid-ß (Aß) vaccine, as well as molecular mechanisms underlying such stimulation still remain unclear. A previous study of ours developed a norovirus P particle-based active Aß epitope vaccine, PP-3copy-Aß1-6-loop123, which stimulates a high titer of Aß-specific antibodies in mouse Alzheimer's disease (AD) models. OBJECTIVE: The most effective and safe adjuvant that maximizes the immunogenicity of our protein vaccine was determined. METHODS: We investigated four adjuvants (CpG, AS02, AS03, and MF59), and combinations of those, for capacity to enhance immunogenicity, and performed transcriptome analysis to explore mechanisms underlying the role of these in AD immunotherapy. RESULTS: Addition of the adjuvant, AS02, remarkably improved the immunogenicity of the PP-3copy-Aß1-6-loop123 vaccine without triggering an Aß-specific T-cell response. Combinations of adjuvants, particularly CpG +  AS02 and CpG + AS03, elicited a significantly elevated and prolonged Aß-specific antibody response. Gene ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analyses indicated that a combination of two adjuvants was more effective in activating immune-related pathways, thereby enhancing the immunogenicity of PP-3copy-Aß1-6-loop123. CONCLUSION: These findings demonstrated that adjuvants can be used as enhancers in AD protein vaccination, and that a combination of CpG and AS-related adjuvants may be a very effective adjuvant candidate suitable for further clinical trials of the PP-3copy-Aß1-6-loop123 vaccine. Our studies also revealed potential mechanisms underlying the stimulation of immune response of protein vaccines by adjuvants.

Histone Deacetylases Inhibit the Snail2-Mediated EMT During Metastasis of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells.

Snail2 has an important role in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and tumor metastasis. Here, we report that Snail2 is highly expressed during TGF-ß induced EMT in HL-7702 cells. Additionally, overexpression of Snail2 successfully promotes the migration and invasion of these cells, both in vitro and in a mouse model. Furthermore, our results show that HDAC1 and HDAC3 could suppress the Snail2 gene promoter. Moreover, we find that the acetylation of H3K4 and H3K56 are significantly reduced during the EMT process of liver HL-7702 cells. Thus, our results indicate that HDAC1 and HDAC3 epigenetically suppress the expression of Snail2 during the EMT of liver cells, revealing an opposing function of HDACs during the migration of malignant tumors.

Effects of simulated digestion on the phenolic composition and antioxidant activity of different cultivars of lychee pericarp.

BACKGROUND: Lychee pericarp is rich in phenolic and has good antioxidant activity. The effects of simulated gastric (SGF) and intestinal fluid (SIF) digestion on the contents, composition, and antioxidant activities of the phenolic substances in the pericarp of different lychee cultivars (cv Jizui, Lizhiwang, Guiwei, Yuhe, Nuomici and Guihong) were investigated. RESULTS: Compared with distilled water (DW) treatment, the total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) in the pericarp of different lychee cultivars decreased after SGF digestion; especially, the TFC in "Lizhiwang" decreased by 41.5%. The TPC and TFC of lychee pericarp also decreased after SIF digestion. However, the TPC in "Jizui", "Guiwei" and "Yuhe" increased. The SGF and SIF also had different effects on the FRAP and ABTS antioxidant activities of different lychee cultivars. The SGF digestion decreased the ABTS antioxidant capacity of lychee pericarp but enhanced the FRAP value of some lychee cultivars. However, the SIF digestion decreased the FRAP antioxidant activity of different lychee cultivar pericarps but enhanced the ABTS antioxidant capacity of lychee. The HPLC results showed that lychee pericarp had relatively high contents of procyanidin B2 and procyanidin A2. After SIF digestion, caffeic acid and isoquercitrin could not be detected in any of the lychee varieties. However, quercetin-3-rutinose-7-rhamnoside and isoquercitrin were increased after SGF digestion. CONCLUSIONS: Lychee pericarp could be used as an inexpensive functional food ingredient.

G9a and histone deacetylases are crucial for Snail2-mediated E-cadherin repression and metastasis in hepatocellular carcinoma.

Functional E-cadherin loss, a hallmark of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), is important for metastasis. However, the mechanism of Snail2 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) EMT and metastasis remains unclear. Here, we showed that Snail2 was upregulated in primary HCC, and significantly increased during transforming growth factor-ß-induced liver cell EMT. Snail2-overexpressing and knockdown cell lines have been established to determine its function in EMT in HCC. H3K9 methylation was upregulated and H3K4 and H3K56 acetylation were downregulated at the E-cadherin promoter in Snail2-overexpressing cancer cells. Furthermore, Snail2 interacted with G9a and histone deacetylases (HDACs) to form a complex to suppress E-cadherin transcription. Snail2 overexpression enhanced migration and invasion in HCC cells, whereas G9a and HDAC inhibition significantly reversed this effect. Moreover, Snail2 overexpression in cancer cells increased tumor metastasis and shortened survival time in mice, whereas G9a and HDAC inhibitors extended survival. Our study not only reveals a critical mechanism underlying the epigenetic regulation of EMT but also suggests novel treatment strategies for HCC.

Snail2 induced E-cadherin suppression and metastasis in lung carcinoma facilitated by G9a and HDACs.

Snail2 is a repressor of E-cadherin during carcinogenesis; however, the specific mechanisms involved in this process remain largely unknown. Here, we determined that Snail2 was highly increased during TGF-ß-induced EMT process in lung cells. H3K9 methylation was up-regulated and H3K4/H3K56 acetylation were down-regulated at the E-cadherin promoter. Snail2 interacted with G9a and HDACs to exert suppression of E-cadherin transcription. Overexpression of Snail2 enhanced the migration and invasion ability, whereas G9a and HDACs inhibition significantly reversed this effect. Our study demonstrated the importance of G9a- and HDACs-mediated regulation during Snail2-induced E-cadherin repression and metastasis during LC progression.

Significant fat reduction in deep-fried kamaboko by fish protein hydrolysates derived from common carp (Cyprinus carpio).

BACKGROUND: To evaluate their fat reduction effect, common carp fish protein hydrolysates (FPH) were made using four methods: the conventional enzymatic process, a microwave-intensified enzymatic process, the conventional alkaline hydrolysis process, and a microwave-intensified alkaline hydrolysis process. RESULTS: The efficiency of protein extraction was significantly enhanced by microwave intensification. The oil-holding capacities of FPH produced by these four processes were all lower than that of raw fish protein. The water-holding capacities of FPH produced by these four processes were all higher than that of raw fish protein. The FPH from the four processes and raw fish protein were used in the preparation of deep-fried kamaboko. The fat content of deep-fried kamaboko was drastically reduced from approximately 160 g kg-1 to about 50 g kg-1 by replacing 20 g kg-1 fish mince with FPH, regardless of the process. Texture profile analysis (TPA) of deep-fried kamaboko found no significant difference in hardness and brittleness among all the deep-fried kamaboko samples. The similar interior protein cross-linking micro-structure of all these samples further explained the TPA finding. CONCLUSION: With the involvement of FPH in the formulation, the fat content of deep-fried kamaboko can be significantly reduced from approximately 160 to 50 g kg-1 , without a change in its texture. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Epigenetic suppression of E-cadherin expression by Snail2 during the metastasis of colorectal cancer.

BACKGROUND: The transcription factor Snail2 is a repressor of E-cadherin expression during carcinogenesis; however, the specific mechanisms involved in this process in human colorectal cancer (CRC) remain largely unknown. METHOD: We checked the expression of Snail2 in several clinical CRC specimens. Then, we established Snail2-overexpressing and knockdown cell lines to determine the function of Snail2 during EMT and metastasis processes in CRC. In addition, we used luciferase reporter assay to explore how Snail2 inhibits the expression of E-cadherin and induces EMT. RESULTS: We found that the expression of Snail2 was higher in clinical specimens of colorectal cancer (CRC) compared to non-cancerous tissues. Overexpression of Snail2 induced migration and metastatic properties in CRC cells in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, overexpression of Snail2 promoted the occurrence of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), downregulating the expression of E-cadherin and upregulating that of vimentin. Specifically, Snail2 could interact with HDAC6 and then recruited HDAC6 and PRC2 to the promoter of E-cadherin and thus inhibited the expression of E-cadherin, promoting EMT and inducing invasion and metastasis of CRC. CONCLUSION: Our study reveals that Snail2 might epigenetically suppress the expression of E-cadherin during CRC metastasis.

Data-Driven Synthetic Modeling of Trees.

In this paper, we develop a data-driven technique to model trees from a single laser scan. A multi-layer representation of the tree structure is proposed to guide the modeling process. In this process, a marching cylinder algorithm is first developed to construct visible branches from the laser scan data. Three levels of crown feature points are then extracted from the scan data to synthesize three layers of non-visible branches. Based on the hierarchical particle flow technique, the branch synthesis method has the advantage of producing visually convincing tree models that are consistent with scan data. User intervention is extremely limited. The robustness of this technique has been validated on both conifer and broadleaf trees.