Chronic Migraine: An Update on Diagnosis and Management.

BACKGROUND: Chronic migraine is an under-recognized and under-treated disorder. A greater understanding of the pathophysiology of migraine and transformation to chronic migraine has led to the first targeted treatments for chronic migraine. In this review, we review current approaches to the diagnosis and management of chronic migraine and discuss recent and emerging novel therapies. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to provide an update on the diagnosis and management of chronic migraine. METHODS AND MATERIAL: The PubMed database was searched for relevant articles published on or before October 2020. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Chronic migraine is an under-recognized and under-treated disorder. Prompt diagnosis and appropriate management can lead to a significant improvement in the quality of life with subsequent socioeconomic benefits.

Oxygen challenge magnetic resonance imaging in healthy human volunteers.

Oxygen challenge imaging involves transient hyperoxia applied during deoxyhaemoglobin sensitive (T2*-weighted) magnetic resonance imaging and has the potential to detect changes in brain oxygen extraction. In order to develop optimal practical protocols for oxygen challenge imaging, we investigated the influence of oxygen concentration, cerebral blood flow change, pattern of oxygen administration and field strength on T2*-weighted signal. Eight healthy volunteers underwent multi-parametric magnetic resonance imaging including oxygen challenge imaging and arterial spin labelling using two oxygen concentrations (target FiO2 of 100 and 60%) administered consecutively (two-stage challenge) at both 1.5T and 3T. There was a greater signal increase in grey matter compared to white matter during oxygen challenge (p < 0.002 at 3T, P < 0.0001 at 1.5T) and at FiO2 = 100% compared to FiO2 = 60% in grey matter at both field strengths (p < 0.02) and in white matter at 3T only (p = 0.0314). Differences in the magnitude of signal change between 1.5T and 3T did not reach statistical significance. Reduction of T2*-weighted signal to below baseline, after hyperoxia withdrawal, confounded interpretation of two-stage oxygen challenge imaging. Reductions in cerebral blood flow did not obscure the T2*-weighted signal increases. In conclusion, the optimal protocol for further study should utilise target FiO2 = 100% during a single oxygen challenge. Imaging at both 1.5T and 3T is clinically feasible.

Respiratory challenge MRI: Practical aspects.

Respiratory challenge MRI is the modification of arterial oxygen (PaO2) and/or carbon dioxide (PaCO2) concentration to induce a change in cerebral function or metabolism which is then measured by MRI. Alterations in arterial gas concentrations can lead to profound changes in cerebral haemodynamics which can be studied using a variety of MRI sequences. Whilst such experiments may provide a wealth of information, conducting them can be complex and challenging. In this paper we review the rationale for respiratory challenge MRI including the effects of oxygen and carbon dioxide on the cerebral circulation. We also discuss the planning, equipment, monitoring and techniques that have been used to undertake these experiments. We finally propose some recommendations in this evolving area for conducting these experiments to enhance data quality and comparison between techniques.

Multi-center prediction of hemorrhagic transformation in acute ischemic stroke using permeability imaging features.

Permeability images derived from magnetic resonance (MR) perfusion images are sensitive to blood-brain barrier derangement of the brain tissue and have been shown to correlate with subsequent development of hemorrhagic transformation (HT) in acute ischemic stroke. This paper presents a multi-center retrospective study that evaluates the predictive power in terms of HT of six permeability MRI measures including contrast slope (CS), final contrast (FC), maximum peak bolus concentration (MPB), peak bolus area (PB), relative recirculation (rR), and percentage recovery (%R). Dynamic T2*-weighted perfusion MR images were collected from 263 acute ischemic stroke patients from four medical centers. An essential aspect of this study is to exploit a classifier-based framework to automatically identify predictive patterns in the overall intensity distribution of the permeability maps. The model is based on normalized intensity histograms that are used as input features to the predictive model. Linear and nonlinear predictive models are evaluated using a cross-validation to measure generalization power on new patients and a comparative analysis is provided for the different types of parameters. Results demonstrate that perfusion imaging in acute ischemic stroke can predict HT with an average accuracy of more than 85% using a predictive model based on a nonlinear regression model. Results also indicate that the permeability feature based on the percentage of recovery performs significantly better than the other features. This novel model may be used to refine treatment decisions in acute stroke.

Rare neurological diseases: a practical approach to management.

Although neurologists are frequently faced with the management of rare diseases, there is little generic guidance for the approach to management. There are complexities with respect to diagnosis, counselling, treatment and monitoring which are idiosyncratic to rare diseases. Here we use a case report as the basis for discussion of the management of rare neurological diseases. We discuss current issues, guidance from regulatory bodies, and offer practical tips for diagnosis, treatment and monitoring, including the use of decision tree analysis. We offer a generic algorithm to aid neurologists when facing rare conditions.

Crossed cerebellar diaschisis: insights into oxygen challenge MRI.

Hyperoxia during T2*-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (oxygen challenge imaging (OCI)) causes T2*-weighted signal change that is dependent on cerebral blood volume (CBV) and oxygen extraction fraction (OEF). Crossed cerebellar diaschisis (CCD), where CBV is reduced but OEF is maintained, may be used to understand the relative contributions of OEF and CBV to OCI results. In subjects with large hemispheric strokes, OCI showed reduced signal change in the contralesional cerebellum (P=0.027, n=12). This was associated with reduced CBV in contralesional cerebellum (P=0.039, n=9). CCD may be a useful model to determine the relative contribution of CBV to signal change measured by OCI.

Multivoxel MR spectroscopy in acute ischemic stroke: comparison to the stroke protocol MRI.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Few patients with stroke have been imaged with MR spectroscopy (MRS) within the first few hours after onset. We compared data from current MRI protocols to MRS in subjects with ischemic stroke. METHODS: MRS was incorporated into the standard clinical MRI stroke protocol for subjects <24 hours after onset. MRI and clinical correlates for the metabolic data from MRS were sought. RESULTS: One hundred thirty-six MRS voxels from 32 subjects were analyzed. Lactate preceded the appearance of the lesion on diffusion-weighted imaging in some voxels but in others lagged behind it. Current protocols may predict up to 41% of the variance of MRS metabolites. Serum glucose concentration and time to maximum partially predicted the concentration of all major metabolites. CONCLUSIONS: MRS may be helpful in acute stroke, especially for lactate detection when perfusion-weighted imaging is unavailable. Current MRI protocols do provide surrogate markers for some indices of metabolic activity.

Pilot results of in vivo brain glutathione measurements in stroke patients.

Measurement of glutathione concentration for the study of redox status in subjects with neurological disease has been limited to peripheral markers. We recruited 19 subjects with large strokes. Using magnetic resonance spectroscopy we measured brain glutathione concentration in the stroke region and in healthy tissue to calculate a glutathione-ratio. Elevated glutathione-ratio was observed in subacute (<72 hours) subjects without hemorrhagic transformation (mean=1.19, P=0.03, n=6). No trend was seen when all subjects were considered (n=19, 3 to 754 hours, range=0.45 to 1.41). This technique can detect glutathione changes because of disease, and may be valuable in clinical trials of stroke and other neurological diseases.

Systematic review of perfusion imaging with computed tomography and magnetic resonance in acute ischemic stroke: heterogeneity of acquisition and postprocessing parameters: a translational medicine research collaboration multicentre acute stroke imaging study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Heterogeneity of acquisition and postprocessing parameters for magnetic resonance- and computed tomography-based perfusion imaging in acute stroke may limit comparisons between studies, but the current degree of heterogeneity in the literature has not been precisely defined. METHODS: We examined articles published before August 30, 2009 that reported perfusion thresholds, average lesion perfusion values, or correlations of perfusion deficit volumes from acute stroke patients <24 hours postictus. We compared acquisition parameters from published studies with guidance from the Acute Stroke Imaging Research Roadmap(1). In addition, we assessed the consistency of postprocessing parameters. RESULTS: Twenty computed tomography perfusion and 49 perfusion-weighted imaging studies were included from 7152 articles. Although certain parameters were reported frequently, consistently, and in line with the Roadmap proposals, we found substantial heterogeneity in other parameters, and there was considerable variation and underreporting of postprocessing methodology. CONCLUSIONS: There is substantial scope to increase homogeneity in future studies, eg, through reporting standards.

Computed tomography and magnetic resonance perfusion imaging in ischemic stroke: definitions and thresholds.

OBJECTIVE: Cerebral perfusion imaging with computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance (MR) is widely available. The optimum perfusion values to identify tissue at risk of infarction in acute stroke are unclear. We systematically reviewed CT and MR perfusion imaging in acute ischemic stroke. METHODS: We searched for papers on MR or CT perfusion performed <24 hours after stroke that assessed perfusion thresholds, mean perfusion lesion values, or lesion volumes. We extracted definitions and perfusion values. We compared definitions and evaluated perfusion thresholds for "nonviable"/"at risk" and "at risk"/"not at risk tissue" thresholds. RESULTS: Among 7,152 papers, 69 met inclusion criteria for analysis of definitions (49 MR and 20 CT), 21 MR (n = 551), and 10 CT (n = 266) papers, median sample size 22, provided thresholds. We found multiple definitions for tissue states, eg, tissue at risk, 18; nonviable tissue, 12; 16, no definition. Perfusion parameters varied widely; eg, 9 different MR, 6 different CT parameters for the "at risk"/"not at risk threshold." Median threshold values varied up to 4-fold, eg, for the "at risk"/"not at risk threshold," median cerebral blood flow ranged from 18 to 37ml/100g/min; mean transit time from 1.8 to 8.3 seconds relative to the contralateral side. The influence of reperfusion and duration of ischemia could not be assessed. INTERPRETATION: CT and MR perfusion imaging viability thresholds in stroke are derived from small numbers of patients, variable perfusion analysis methods and definitions of tissue states. Greater consistency of methods would help determine reliable perfusion viability values for wider clinical use of perfusion imaging.

T2*-weighted magnetic resonance imaging with hyperoxia in acute ischemic stroke.

OBJECTIVE: We describe the first clinical application of transient hyperoxia ("oxygen challenge") during T2*-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), to detect differences in vascular deoxyhemoglobin between tissue compartments following stroke. METHODS: Subjects with acute ischemic stroke were scanned with T2*-weighted MRI and oxygen challenge. For regions defined as infarct core (diffusion-weighted imaging lesion) and presumed penumbra (perfusion-diffusion mismatch [threshold = T(max) > or =4 seconds], or regions exhibiting diffusion lesion expansion at day 3), T2*-weighted signal intensity-time curves corresponding to the duration of oxygen challenge were generated. From these, the area under the curve, gradient of incline of the signal increase, time to maximum signal, and percentage signal change after oxygen challenge were measured. RESULTS: We identified 25 subjects with stroke lesions >1ml. Eighteen subjects with good quality T2*-weighted signal intensity-time curves in the contralateral hemisphere were analyzed. Curves from the diffusion lesion had a smaller area under the curve, percentage signal change, and gradient of incline, and longer time to maximum signal (p < 0.05, n = 17) compared to normal tissue, which consistently showed signal increase during oxygen challenge. Curves in the presumed penumbral regions (n = 8) showed varied morphology, but at hyperacute time points (<8 hours) showed a tendency to greater percentage signal change. INTERPRETATION: Differences in T2*-weighted signal intensity-time curves during oxygen challenge in brain regions with different pathophysiological states after stroke are likely to reflect differences in deoxyhemoglobin concentration, and therefore differences in metabolic activity. Despite its underlying complexities, this technique offers a possible novel mode of metabolic imaging in acute stroke.

Brain lesion volume and capacity for consent in stroke trials: potential regulatory barriers to the use of surrogate markers.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: European directives and legislation in some countries forbid inclusion of subjects incapable of consent in research if recruitment of patients capable of consent will yield similar results. We compared brain lesion volumes in stroke patients deemed to have capacity to consent with those defined as incapacitated. METHODS: Data were obtained from 3 trials recruiting patients primarily with cortical stroke syndromes. Patients were recruited within 24 hours of onset and used MRI based selection or outcome criteria. Method of recruitment was recorded with stroke severity, age, and brain lesion volumes on Diffusion Weighted Imaging. RESULTS: Of the 56 subjects included, 38 (68%) were recruited by assent and 18 (32%) by consent. The assent group had a median lesion volume of 18.35 cubic centimetres (cc) (interquartile range [IQR] 8.27-110.31 cc), compared to 2.79 cc (IQR 1.31-12.33 cc) when patients consented (P=0.0004). Lesions were smaller than 5 cc in 7/38 (18%) in the assent group and 11/18 (61%) in the consent group (P=0.0024). There was good correlation between neurological deficit by NIH stroke scale score and lesion volume (r=0.584, P<0.0001). Logistic regression demonstrated NIHSS or lesion volume predicted capacity to consent. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with acute stroke who retain capacity to consent have significantly smaller infarct volumes than those incapable of consent, and these are frequently below the limits where measurement error significantly compromises valid use of volumetric end points. Only a small proportion of patients with capacity to consent would be eligible for, and contribute usefully to, most acute stroke trial protocols.