World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (WAAVP) guidelines for evaluating the efficacy of anticoccidial drugs in chickens and turkeys.

These guidelines have been written to aid in the design, implementation and interpretation of studies for the assessment of drug efficacy against Eimeria species in chickens and turkeys. The information provided deals with many aspects of how to conduct controlled studies in battery cages (dose determination), floor pens (dose confirmation), and commercial facilities (field effectiveness studies), the selection of birds, housing, feeding, preparation of medicated rations, record keeping, diagnostic techniques, and methods for the preparation, maintenance and use of parasites. These guidelines are also intended to assist investigators in conducting specific studies, provide specific information for registration authorities involved in the decision-making process, assist in the approval and registration of new anticoccidial drugs, and facilitate the world-wide adoption of standard procedures.

Comparative testing of anticoccidials in broiler chickens: the role of coccidial lesion scores.

The relationship between oocyst dose and lesion score was evaluated in trials involving five field isolates each of Eimeria acervulina, Eimeria maxima, and Eimeria tenella. Each trial included an uninfected, unmedicated treatment, and at least three treatments of unmedicated birds given different doses of oocysts from a single isolate. In four trials each with E. acervulina and E. tenella, and all five trials with E. maxima, infected, salinomycin-medicated (60 ppm) treatments were included. Each treatment consisted of five cages with eight male broiler birds per cage using a randomized complete block design. The relationship between oocyst dose and lesion score was examined within each coccidial species using the linear model: Y = beta0 + beta1(log(n) oocyst dose + 1). The results demonstrated that in unmedicated birds, low oocyst doses caused mean lesion scores up to 2.0, but the numbers required to cause higher mean scores were many times greater. Second, the estimated oocyst dose in salinomycin-medicated birds for any given mean lesion score was substantially more than the corresponding estimate for unmedicated birds. These results indicated that there could be wide differences in levels of oocyst dose between unmedicated and medicated birds that lesion scores failed to measure. If lesion scores are used in trials comparing anticoccidial drugs, an alternative design may be to include three infected, unmedicated treatments each given a different level of inoculum (e.g., low, medium, and high). Medicated treatments, given the highest oocyst dose only, would then be compared to each of the infected, unmedicated treatments.

Comparison of arithmetic and geometric means as measures of a central tendency in cattle nematode populations.

Efficacy calculations in anthelmintic studies require estimates of the central tendency for the nematode populations. Confusion exists among practitioners regarding which measures of central tendency are most appropriate; although the arithmetic mean is frequently used, there are theoretical reasons for preferring the geometric mean. To investigate this controversy, arithmetic and geometric means were compared for their suitability for use in measuring efficacy. Arithmetic and geometric means were compared as measures of central tendency for skewed distributions. The following criteria were developed to facilitate the comparison: (1) probability around the parameter, (2) influence of extreme values, and (3) proximity to the median. Under log-normality, theoretical results demonstrated the superiority of the geometric mean. Modified-bootstrap simulations using empirical data from cattle were used to confirm theoretical expectations. Simulations on log-normal data supported the geometric mean as the better indicator of the central tendency. Additionally, for data not confirmed as log-normal, the superiority of geometric means was demonstrated. In a comparison of precision, it was shown that mean squared error was always smaller for sample geometric means than for arithmetic means when n> or =2. Simulation results added support to that conclusion.

Relationship of coccidial lesion scores and weight gain in infections of Eimeria acervulina, E. maxima and E. tenella in broilers.

A relationship was estimated between weight gains and coccidial lesion scores measured on individual male broiler chicks experimentally infected with different field isolates of Eimeria acervulina (seven tests), E. maxima (five tests) or E. tenella (eight tests). There was a small decrease in weight gain as lesion scores increased in E. acervulina infections, and a modest reduction in weight gain with increasing lesion scores in E. maxima and E. tenella infections. This relationship was observed in both nonmedicated birds and birds fed on diets containing 60 mg salinomycin/kg. The weight gains for birds fed 60 mg/kg with lesion scores of 2, 3 and 4 for E. acervulina. 1,2,3 and 4 for E. maxima and 2 and 3 for E. tenella were significantly greater than the weight gains of nonmedicated birds with the same lesion scores. The results demonstrated that lesion scoring does not fully reflect the degree of disease severity in induced infection. High lesion scores caused by the three species studied were associated with small changes in weight gain in medicated birds when compared with nonmedicated birds.

Effect of lasalocid, monensin and thiopeptin on rumen protozoa.

The effects of lasalocid, monensin and thiopeptin on the total number and the generic composition of rumen protozoa were determined in vivo and in vitro. Feeding lasalocid or monensin to cattle on either high grain or high roughage diets reduced total protozoal counts. Addition of lasalocid or monensin (6 to 48 micrograms ml-1) to the in vitro rumen fermentation resulted in marked reduction in protozoal numbers. The inhibition was dose dependent. Thiopeptin had no effect on rumen protozoa either in vivo or in vitro. Among the protozoal types, holotrichs (Dasytricha, Isotricha and Charonina) were unaffected by either lasalocid or monensin. Among the entodiniomorphs, Entodinium, Diplodinium and Ophryoscolex were more sensitive than the other types. Ophryoscolex purkynei was more sensitive to monensin than to lasalocid. Protozoal inhibition by lasalocid and monensin was transient because prolonged antibiotic feeding resulted in the selection of a resistant population in the rumen of cattle.

Lasalocid toxicity in cattle: acute clinicopathological changes.

Thirty-six steers (148 to 500 kg) divided into six equal groups were used in a toxic syndrome study of lasalocid and monensin given as a single oral dose. One group was given a placebo, a second group received monensin (25 mg/kg body weight) and the other four groups received lasalocid at 1, 10, 50 or 100 mg/kg body weight (bw). No toxic signs developed in cattle given placebo or lasalocid at 1 or 10 mg/kg bw dose. The earliest toxic signs were muscle tremors, tachycardia and rumen atony. After 24 h, the cattle were dehydrated, anorectic and had diarrhea. Deaths occurred between d 1 and 22.5 in the groups receiving lasalocid at 50 and 100 mg/kg bw and monensin. Altered values in blood leucocytes, erythrocytes, hemoglobin, hematocrit, total protein, albumin, creatinine, urea nitrogen, total bilirubin, creatine kinase, lactic dehydrogenase, calcium, chloride and inorganic phosphate occurred 1 d after dosing: urine pH and specific gravity also changed 1 d after dosing. Maximum changes occurred at d 3. Most of the changes were indicative of dehydration rather than specific organ damage.

Effect of supplemental vitamin E on the immune system of calves.

The effect of vitamin E on immune responses of Holstein calves was investigated. Treatments were: 0,1400, and 2800 mg of dl-alpha-tocopheryl acetate given orally at weekly intervals or 1400 mg of dl-alpha-tocopherol weekly by injection. Calves were fed milk for 6 wk and then fed a complete calf starter ad libitum. Calves were on experiment until they were 12 wk of age. Lymphocyte stimulation indices were significantly higher for calves given the high amount of oral supplementation and for injected calves than for unsupplemented calves. There were no significant differences at any of the individual weeks between unsupplemented and orally supplemented calves. Injected calves showed significantly higher values than unsupplemented calves at wk 4 and than all other calves at wk 8. There were no significant differences in the concentrations of immunoglobulins G1 and G2 among treatments. Immunoglobulin M was significantly higher at wk 6 in calves given the high amount of oral supplementation than in all other calves. At wk 12, serum from calves given the high amount of oral supplementation and calves given injections inhibited infectious bovine rhinotracheitis viral replication in tissue cultures as compared with those of unsupplemented calves. In supplemental experiments serum alpha-tocopherol and lymphocyte stimulation indices of yearling heifers determined 7 d after a single injection of 2000 IU of dl-alpha-tocopherol were significantly higher than preinjection values. In vitro addition of vitamin E to lymphocyte cultures did not increase phytohemagglutinin-induced blastogenesis.

Mononuclear phagocytes of transport-stressed horses with viral respiratory tract infection.

Twelve horses comprised 3 treatment groups; all horses in 2 of the groups had recently been transported and had clinical and laboratory evidence of respiratory tract infection, with equine influenza type 2 virus being the principal pathogen. Mononuclear phagocytes and other leukocytes from blood, lung, and peritoneal cavity were studied in phagocytosis and erythrocyte-antibody (EA) rosette assays. Total numbers of pulmonary alveolar macrophages were increased over control values in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid of group 3 horses after recovery from influenza (P less than 0.02), whereas the increase in neutrophils in the fluid of those horses approached significance. Lymphocytes in BAL fluid of group 3 horses (after recovery from influenza) were in larger proportion than those in fluid of group 1 horses during acute influenza (P less than 0.05). Pulmonary alveolar macrophages of group 1 horses formed a lower percentage of EA rosettes than did those of controls (P less than 0.01) or group 3 horses (P less than 0.02). The differential counts of peritoneal macrophages and neutrophils in horses of groups 1 and 3 were virtually identical at the first collection, but differed from controls at the second collection 4 weeks later; peritoneal macrophages were reduced (P less than 0.01), whereas peritoneal neutrophils were increased (P less than 0.01). Peritoneal macrophages and peritoneal neutrophils of horses with acute influenza were phagocytic in larger proportion than were those in controls at both collection times (P less than 0.01 and P less than 0.01 for peritoneal macrophages, and P less than 0.01 and P less than 0.05 for peritoneal neutrophils, respectively).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Effects of supplemental vitamin E on the performance and metabolic profiles of dairy calves.

Twenty-eight Holstein heifer calves were allotted at birth to one of four treatments: 1) 0 mg, 2) 1,400 mg, or 3) 2,800 mg of dl-alpha-tocopherol acetate given orally at weekly intervals, or 4) 1,400 IU of dl-alpha-tocopherol weekly by intramuscular injection in order for us to study their performance and metabolic profile. Calves were fed milk at 8% of birth weight until they were weaned at 6 wk of age and fed a complete calf starter ad libitum from birth. Calves were on experiment for 12 wk. There were no significant differences in weekly weight gains, starter consumption, and fecal scores among treatments. However, there was a trend toward greater starter consumption and weight gains in supplemental calves. Serum alpha-tocopherol concentration measured after 7 d of each administration was significantly higher at wk 4 in calves given the high oral supplementation and at wk 2, 4, 6, and 8 higher in injected calves than in unsupplemented calves. Creatine kinase activity was higher in unsupplemented calves and negatively correlated with serum alpha-tocopherol until wk 8, suggesting preclinical muscular dystrophy. Alkaline phosphatase activity was higher with the high oral supplementation. Serum carbon dioxide values showed a trend toward positive correlation with those for serum tocopherol; however, the values were within normal range. There were no significant differences in creatinine, glucose, phosphorus, calcium, urea nitrogen, chloride, sodium, potassium, albumin, and total protein among treatments. Serum glucose was higher in all calves at wk 10 and 12 than at wk 4, 6, and 8. Calves may not get enough vitamin E with conventional calf starters, and supplementation may be essential to obtain maximum performance.

Food consumption and quality of diets of Kansas elementary students.

Better knowledge of the eating patterns of children would allow nutritionists to target nutrition information more effectively. Twenty-four-hour dietary recalls were collected from 1,242 elementary students to investigate their eating patterns. Foods consumed were classified into categories on the basis of similar composition. Dietary quality was assessed by calculating mean adequacy ratios. Grain products, high-protein foods, vegetables, and milk products were included in the diets of almost all students. Sugary products were consumed by almost 90%, 20% drank non-sugary beverages, and fats and oils were included by 80%. Also, 80% consumed fruits and juices. Consumption of milk and milk products was the most important estimator of dietary quality, followed by vegetables, mixed protein dishes, nutrient supplements, fruits, high-protein foods and grain products. When nutrient supplements were excluded, fruit and grain products became more important predictors. Non-sugary beverages adversely affected the quality of children's intakes. Students with dietary quality indexes between 90 and 100 consumed milk and vegetables more frequently than those with indexes of less than 66, who drank non-sugary beverages more often. Dietary quality varied in direct proportion to level of energy intake, suggesting that nutrition education should emphasize intake of nutrient-dense foods.

Effect of prepartum vaccination with K99 Escherichia coli vaccine on maternal and calf blood antibody concentration and calf health.

One hundred and two dry, pregnant Holstein cows were identified alternately as vaccinated or nonvaccinated (Group 0) animals. Vaccinated cows were scheduled for vaccination at 6 and 3 wk prior to expected calving date with Vicogen, a commercial vaccine produced for the prevention of calf scours caused by enteropathogenic Escherichia coli that possess the K99 antigen. Group 1 included cows that were less than 6 wk from freshening when the experiment started and, therefore, received only one vaccination and cows that received two vaccinations with less than 5 days between the second vaccination and freshening. Those cows with interval between the second vaccination and parturition greater than 5 days were classified as Group 2. Soon after birth, each calf was given 2 liters of colostrum from its dam. For at least 3 days, and longer when available, calves from control cows received pooled colostrum from control cows and calves from vaccinated cows received pooled colostrum from vaccinated cows. Anti-K99 antibody titers were determined by an agglutination test on blood from cows and calves and on colostrum. Other measurements were made by standard procedures. Results from Groups 0, 1, and 2 were cow blood titer at freshening 21, 355, 306; calf total plasma protein at 24 h of age 6.45, 6.31, 6.22; calf packed cell volume at 24 h of age 32.9, 30.0, 30.2; calf blood titer at 24 h of age 34, 762, 1114; colostrum titer 74, 1637, 3404. For 93 calves, mortality was 10.6, 11.1, and 7.1%.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The effect of organizational level and practice area on managerial work in hospital dietetic services.

All areas of practice in hospital dietetic services include a management component; however, the nature of the managerial role in various areas of dietetic practice has not been identified clearly. The definition of dietetic practice in the Conceptual Framework for the Profession of Dietetics supports the importance of managerial skills. The effect of organizational level and practice area on managerial activities and roles of professional staff in hospital dietetic services was examined in this study. The nationwide sample included professionals in hospitals with 300+ beds. A total of 3,280 dietetic professionals participated. Five groups were defined: low administrative, low clinical, middle administrative, middle clinical, and upper administrative. Mintzberg identified 10 managerial roles and categorized them as interpersonal, informational, or decisional. The 10 roles were used as the basis for developing an 80-item instrument on which respondents rated each item for importance and time demand. Perceived importance of managerial activities tended to be greater at higher organizational levels. The managerial aspects of the lower clinical and upper administrative position were the most clearly defined. The lower clinical group tended to rate all of the managerial roles as significantly less important than did those in other positions; however, the middle clinical position included a substantial managerial responsibility.

Physical measurements of 9- to 12-year-old children in Kansas.

Measurements of height, weight, triceps, skinfold, and arm circumference were obtained from 3,231 Kansas children 9 to 12 years old as part of the Nutrition Education and Training Needs Assessment Project. Data were collected in 97 schools randomly selected throughout the state. Participating fifth grade students were divided equally between boys and girls; approximately 95% were Caucasian, 3.4% were black, and the remainder were from other ethnic groups, a profile similar to that of the Kansas population. Girls and boys in the study sample tended to be taller and to weigh more than girls and boys of similar age in national studies. Because of adolescent growth spurts, which differ among individuals, the data would need to be interpreted with caution if individual students' growth patterns were being assessed. Kansas girls and boys also tended to have larger triceps skinfold and arm fat area measurements than their counterparts in the NHANES I study. Those data, coupled with the tendency toward greater weight, suggested a greater incidence of overweight among Kansas children than among elementary school children nationally.

Effect of dietary niacin supplementation on phlorhizin and 1,3-butanediol-induced ketonemia and hypoglycemia in steers.

1,3-Butanediol and phlorhizin were used to induce ketonemia and hypoglycemia in steers. Oral administration of butanediol increased blood beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) and plasma nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) and decreased serum glucose. Subcutaneous injections of phlorhizin, given in addition to butanediol orally, further increased NEFA and BHB concentrations and decreased glucose. Dietary niacin supplementation of steers given phlorhizin and butanediol caused serum glucose concentration to increase and blood BHB and plasma NEFA concentrations to decrease.

Effect of dietary niacin supplementation on serum constituents of periparturient dairy cattle.

A total of 60 multiparous periparturient Holstein cows were used to determine the differences in serum constituents between cows given supplemental niacin in the diet and cows not given supplemental niacin. Serum inorganic phosphorus concentration was consistently higher (P less than 0.10) and serum potassium, total calcium, and sodium concentrations and alkaline phosphatase activities were consistently lower in cows given supplemental niacin than in cows not given supplemental niacin. Serum chloride, creatinine, and albumin values also tended to be lower in niacin-supplemented cows. Serum total protein tended to be slightly higher in niacin-supplemented cows. There was no consistent difference in urea nitrogen between groups of cows.

Fear-related responses of white Leghorn hens of several genetic stocks in five-bird cages and associations with quantitative traits.

Hens of 8 genetic stocks derived from a common foundation population were compared at three ages for latency to recover from tonic immobility (TI) and from an avoidance response following exposure to a metronome. Body weight, feather score, and egg-production traits also were measured. A total of 350 hens was involved and individuals of the same genetic stock were kept together in 5-hen cages from 19 to 70 weeks old. The TI and metronome avoidance tests were conducted in three rounds at mean ages of 35, 48, and 61 weeks. Hens of stocks with increased egg mass, resulting from selection, did not differ from unselected controls for TI or avoidance responses. Straincross hens also did not differ from parental strain means for these fear-related behaviors. Time to recover from induced TI decreased with repeated testing at 13-week intervals. Hens exposed to the metronome a second time within the first round recovered more rapidly than did those tested in this way for the first time. Previous indirect exposure to the metronome also resulted in reduction in avoidance time. Correlation analysis revealed only a moderate association between TI and avoidance responses (r = .23, P less than .01). Avoidance responses were not associated with any other quantitative trait in the 5-hen cage environment. Duration of TI was moderately associated with body weight (r = .22, P less than .01) and had a complex relationship with total egg mass produced, which was associated with the interval in cages prior to testing. There was no apparent correlation of TI and egg mass when TI was measured on 35-week-old hens, heterogeneity of correlations was present among genetic stocks tested at 48 weeks, and a negative association was detected when TI tests were conducted at 61 weeks (r = -.46, P less than .01).

Tonic immobility responses of white leghorn hens affected by induction techniques and genetic stock differences.

Tonic immobility (TI) was induced in about 70% of While Leghorn hens caught and immediately restrained in the dorsal position for a single 15 sec period. Temporary confinement of hens housed in floor pens in single-bird cages prior to restraint reduced initial induction of TI to 46%. Eye closure during TI occurred in less than or equal to 15% of hens and vocalization, jumping up, or both on termination was present about 80% of the time. Induction of TI on first restraint was greater when less support was provided for the hen's body. Latency until first gross leg and head movement after TI induction decreased with increased time required for catching of hens in floor pens, but righting time (until hens stool up) was unaffected. Correlations among the three latency measures revealed the following: between leg and head movement, r .41 to .71 (P less than .01); leg movement and righting, r .51 to .99 (P less than .01); head movement and righting, r -.62 (P less than .05) to .96 (P less than .01). Genetic differences were detected consistently by latency to first gross head movement and by righting time only. Strains selected for part-year egg mass showed more prompt head movement than did unselected controls. Random genetic drift between strains selected alike apparently was responsible for differences in righting time. Although strains within selection schemes differed, crosses between strains did not differ from the mean of the parental strains, providing evidence that genetic variance for righting time tends to be more additive than nonadditive.

Effects of Ascorbic Acid on Display Life of Ground Beef.

Fresh ground beef containing 20 and 25% fat was either treated with 0.01, 0.05 or 0.10% crystalline ascorbic acid or remained as non-treated controls. Samples were displayed in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film for up to 10 d (24 h/d) at 2 to 3°C under 1076 lux G. E. Natural light. Measures of display life included visual color scores, reflectance measurements, sensory panel scores, thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values and microbial standard plate counts (SPC). At days 1, 3 and 5 of display, average and worst point visual color scores were judged brighter for all ascorbic acid treatments compared to controls. Lower metmyoglobin percentages, higher %R630nm/%R580nm and higher CIE a* readings at days 3, 5 and 10 for the ascorbic acid-treated product supported visual color results. Higher fat (25%) and higher ascorbic acid levels (0.05 and 0.10%) gave brighter visual color responses at 5 d of display than the 20% fat product and that containing 0.01% ascorbic acid. More intense sensory panel beef flavor was associated with the 0.05 and 0.10% ascorbic acid treatments. More off-flavor was found in the higher fat product (25%). TBA values were not different for fat level comparisons, but were lower for the 0.05 and 0.10% ascorbic acid treatments. At day 5 of display, SPC were not affected by ascorbic acid treatment. The 25% fat product had lower SPC at day 5.

Establishing the need for nutrition education: IV. Evaluation of dietary intakes of elementary school children.

Levels of energy intake and selected nutrients in the diets of elementary school children, as observed in a Kansas Nutrition Education and Training Program needs assessment project, are reported. For almost half of the girls and boys in the study, energy intakes exceeded 100% of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA); for most of the students, protein intakes exceeded 125% of the RDA. Magnesium, iron, and vitamin B6 were the nutrients most limiting in the diets. Implications for nutrition education are discussed.