Development, Validation, and Comparison of a Novel Nociception/Anti-Nociception Monitor against Two Commercial Monitors in General Anesthesia.

In this paper, we present the development and the validation of a novel index of nociception/anti-nociception (N/AN) based on skin impedance measurement in time and frequency domain with our prototype AnspecPro device. The primary objective of the study was to compare the Anspec-PRO device with two other commercial devices (Medasense, Medstorm). This comparison was designed to be conducted under the same conditions for the three devices. This was carried out during total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA) by investigating its outcomes related to noxious stimulus. In a carefully designed clinical protocol during general anesthesia from induction until emergence, we extract data for estimating individualized causal dynamic models between drug infusion and their monitored effect variables. Specifically, these are Propofol hypnotic drug to Bispectral index of hypnosis level and Remifentanil opioid drug to each of the three aforementioned devices. When compared, statistical analysis of the regions before and during the standardized stimulus shows consistent difference between regions for all devices and for all indices. These results suggest that the proposed methodology for data extraction and processing for AnspecPro delivers the same information as the two commercial devices.

Revisiting Ziegler-Nichols. A fractional order approach.

PID controllers are largely used in industry. Auto-tuning methods for these controllers have emerged over the years, including the well-known Ziegler-Nichols method. Several extensions and improvements to this early autotuning method have been proposed throughout the years. A new method is introduced in this manuscript suitable for fractional order PIDs. The "direction" of the loop frequency response in the critical Ziegler-Nichols point is shaped using the the fractional order. The numerical results show that better closed loop performance is achieved. Different case studies are considered to validate the proposed method and demonstrate its advantage compared to the standard method.

Fractional-order PID design: Towards transition from state-of-art to state-of-use.

This paper presents a new tuning method for fractional-order (FO)PID controllers to simplify current tuning and make FOPID controllers more convenient for industry, i.e. facilitate transition from state-of-art to state-of-use. The number of tuning parameters is reduced from five to three based on popular specification settings for PID controllers without the need for reduced process models which introduce modeling errors. A test batch of 133 simulated processes and two real-life processes are used to test the presented method. A comparative study between the new method and the established CRONE controller, quantifies the performance. The conclusion states that the new method gives fractional controllers with similar performances as the current methods but with a significantly decreased tuning complexity making FOPID controllers more acceptable to industry.

An efficient algorithm for low-order direct discrete-time implementation of fractional order transfer functions.

Fractional order systems become increasingly popular due to their versatility in modelling and control applications across various disciplines. However, the bottleneck in deploying these tools in practice is related to their implementation on real-life systems. Numerical approximations are employed but their complexity no longer match the attractive simplicity of the original fractional order systems. This paper proposes a low-order, computationally stable and efficient method for direct approximation of general order (fractional order) systems in the form of discrete-time rational transfer functions, e.g. processes, controllers. A fair comparison to other direct discretization methods is presented, demonstrating its added value with respect to the state of art.

Structural changes in the COPD lung and related heterogeneity.

This paper proposes a mathematical framework for understanding how the structural changes in the COPD lung reflect in model parameters. The core of the analysis is a correlation between the heterogeneity in the lung as COPD degree changes (GOLD II, III and IV) and the nonlinearity index evaluated using the forced oscillation technique. A low frequency evaluation of respiratory impedance models and nonlinearity degree is performed since changes in tissue mechanics are related to viscoelastic properties. Simulation analysis of our model indicates a good correlation to expected changes in heterogeneity and nonlinear effects. A total of 43 COPD diagnosed patients are evaluated, distributed as GOLD II (18), GOLD III (15) and GOLD IV (10). Experimental data supports the claims and indicate that the proposed model and index for nonlinearity is well-suited to capture COPD structural changes.

A novel auto-tuning method for fractional order PI/PD controllers.

Fractional order PID controllers benefit from an increasing amount of interest from the research community due to their proven advantages. The classical tuning approach for these controllers is based on specifying a certain gain crossover frequency, a phase margin and a robustness to gain variations. To tune the fractional order controllers, the modulus, phase and phase slope of the process at the imposed gain crossover frequency are required. Usually these values are obtained from a mathematical model of the process, e.g. a transfer function. In the absence of such model, an auto-tuning method that is able to estimate these values is a valuable alternative. Auto-tuning methods are among the least discussed design methods for fractional order PID controllers. This paper proposes a novel approach for the auto-tuning of fractional order controllers. The method is based on a simple experiment that is able to determine the modulus, phase and phase slope of the process required in the computation of the controller parameters. The proposed design technique is simple and efficient in ensuring the robustness of the closed loop system. Several simulation examples are presented, including the control of processes exhibiting integer and fractional order dynamics.

Towards the Development of a Smart Flying Sensor: Illustration in the Field of Precision Agriculture.

Sensing is an important element to quantify productivity, product quality and to make decisions. Applications, such as mapping, surveillance, exploration and precision agriculture, require a reliable platform for remote sensing. This paper presents the first steps towards the development of a smart flying sensor based on an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). The concept of smart remote sensing is illustrated and its performance tested for the task of mapping the volume of grain inside a trailer during forage harvesting. Novelty lies in: (1) the development of a position-estimation method with time delay compensation based on inertial measurement unit (IMU) sensors and image processing; (2) a method to build a 3D map using information obtained from a regular camera; and (3) the design and implementation of a path-following control algorithm using model predictive control (MPC). Experimental results on a lab-scale system validate the effectiveness of the proposed methodology.

Lessons learned from closed loops in engineering: towards a multivariable approach regulating depth of anaesthesia.

In this paper is presented a brief state of art regarding the multivariable formulation for controlling the depth of anaesthesia by means of two intravenously administrated drugs, i.e. propofol and remifentanil. In a feasibility study of determining a suitable variable to quantify analgesia levels in patients undergoing cardiac surgery, the bispectral index and an electromyogram-based surrogate variable are proposed as the controlled variables. The study is carried on in the context of implementing a multivariable predictive control algorithm. The simulation results show that such a paradigm is feasible, although it does not guarantee perfect knowledge of the analgesia level-in other words, the variable is not validated against typical evaluations of the pain levels (e.g. clinical scores).

A recurrent parameter model to characterize the high-frequency range of respiratory impedance in healthy subjects.

In this work, a re-visited model of the respiratory system is proposed. Identification of a recurrent electrical ladder network model of the lungs, which incorporates their specific morphology and anatomical structure, is performed on 31 healthy subjects. The data for identification has been gathered using the forced oscillation lung function test, which delivers a non-parametric model of the impedance. On the measured frequency response, the ladder network parameters have been identified and a fractional order has been calculated from the recurrent ratios of the respiratory mechanics (resistance and compliance). The paper includes also a comparison of our recurrent parameter model with another parametric model for high frequency range. The results suggest that the two models can equally well characterize the respiratory impedance over a long range of frequencies. Additionally, we have shown that the fractional order resulting from the recurrent properties of resistance and compliance in the ladder network model is independent of frequency and is not biased by the nose clip wore by the patients during measurements. An illustrative example shows that our re-visited model is sensitive to changes in respiratory mechanics and the fractional order value is a reliable parameter to capture these changes.

Adaptive control of a pressure-controlled artificial ventilator: a simulator-based evaluation using real COPD patient data.

The paper discusses the application of a direct adaptive controller to a pressure controlled artificial ventilation problem. In pressure controlled ventilators, the manipulated variable is the maximum flow applied to the patient during the active phase (inspiration), and the regulated variable is the peak pressure at end-inspiration. This simulation case study focuses on patients diagnosed with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), which require artificial/mechanical ventilation. An adaptive PID controller ensures peak pressures below critical values, by manipulating the flow delivered by the ventilator. The simulation study is performed on fractional-order models of the respiratory impedance identified from lung function data obtained from 21 COPD patients. Additional simulation studies show the robustness of the controller in presence of varying model parameters from the respiratory impedance of the patient. Possibilities to implement the control strategy as an online adaptive algorithm are also explored. The results show that the design of the control is suitable for this kind of application and provides useful insight on realistic scenarios.

Is multidimensional scaling suitable for mapping the input respiratory impedance in subjects and patients?

This paper presents the application of multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis to data emerging from noninvasive lung function tests, namely the input respiratory impedance. The aim is to obtain a geometrical mapping of the diseases in a 3D space representation, allowing analysis of (dis)similarities between subjects within the same pathology groups, as well as between the various groups. The adult patient groups investigated were healthy, diagnosed chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and diagnosed kyphoscoliosis, respectively. The children patient groups were healthy, asthma and cystic fibrosis. The results suggest that MDS can be successfully employed for mapping purposes of restrictive (kyphoscoliosis) and obstructive (COPD) pathologies. Hence, MDS tools can be further examined to define clear limits between pools of patients for clinical classification, and used as a training aid for medical traineeship.

Variable time-delay estimation for anesthesia control during intensive care.

The presence of artifacts plays a crucial role in automatic sedation systems and may introduce variable time delays (TDs) in the closed-loop-control structures. This paper presents a successful procedure to estimate the varying TD of the bispectral index (BIS) monitor used in closed-loop control during intensive care. The TD estimation (TDE) is based on the cross-correlation analysis technique and the method is validated with real measured signals of propofol and BIS. Extended prediction self-adaptive control is used in combination with a Smith predictor to reduce the computational burden imposed by the variable TD. The conclusion is that an online TDE of the BIS monitor improves the performance of the closed-loop system for reference tracking, disturbance rejection, and overall stability.

Fractional order model parameters for the respiratory input impedance in healthy and in asthmatic children.

This paper provides an evaluation of a fractional order model for the respiratory input impedance, using two groups of subjects, respectively healthy and asthmatic children. The purpose is to verify if the model is able to deliver statistically meaningful parameter values in order to classify the two groups. The data are gathered with the non-invasive lung function test of forced oscillations technique, by means of a multisine signal within the 4-48Hz frequency range. Based on our previous work, a fractional order model for this range of frequencies is obtained. Additional parameters are proposed to evaluate the two groups. The results indicate that the model was unable to detect significant changes between the asthmatic children with normal spirometry results (as result of medication) and the healthy children. Due to medication intake during the hours prior to the exam, bronchial challenge did not modify substantially the respiratory parameters. Our findings correspond to similar studies reported in the specialized literature. Combined model parameters, such as the tissue damping and the tissue elastance were significantly different in the two groups (p<0.01). Two extra indexes are introduced: the quality factor and the power factor, providing significantly different results between the two groups (p≪0.01). We conclude that the model can be used in the respective frequency range to characterize the two groups efficiently.

Respiratory impedance and corresponding phase-constancy in the 7.5 to 247.5 Hz frequency interval for healthy subjects.

This paper presents contributions on respiratory impedance and its phase constancy effects at high frequencies; i.e. 7.5-247.5 Hz. Measurements of 14 healthy volunteers are used to provide the input impedance values. It is shown, via the modulus-phase characteristics, that the impedance poses a typical frequency-independent behavior, known as phase constancy. We propose an electrical ladder network analogue for which we identify a set of parameters from these real-life measurements. The results presented in this paper support earlier theoretical insights on the appearance of phase constancy in ladder networks and the estimated model parameters have meaningful values. The phase constancy implies that the respiratory system is fractal and that the tissue exhibits viscoelastic properties.

A theoretical study on modeling the respiratory tract with ladder networks by means of intrinsic fractal geometry.

Fractional order modeling of biological systems has received significant interest in the research community. Since the fractal geometry is characterized by a recurrent structure, the self-similar branching arrangement of the airways makes the respiratory system an ideal candidate for the application of fractional calculus theory. To demonstrate the link between the recurrence of the respiratory tree and the appearance of a fractional-order model, we develop an anatomically consistent representation of the respiratory system. This model is capable of simulating the mechanical properties of the lungs and we compare the model output with in vivo measurements of the respiratory input impedance collected in 20 healthy subjects. This paper provides further proof of the underlying fractal geometry of the human lungs, and the consequent appearance of constant-phase behavior in the total respiratory impedance.

Assessment of respiratory mechanical properties with constant-phase models in healthy and COPD lungs.

This study employs the concept of applying constant-phase models to input respiratory impedance data obtained with the non-invasive Forced Oscillation Technique (FOT) lung function test. Changes in respiratory mechanics from healthy and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) diagnosed patients are observed with a four- and a five-parameter constant-phase model. Tissue damping (p<<0.01), tissue elastance (p<0.02) and tissue hysteresivity (p<<0.01) are calculated from the identified model parameters, providing significant separation between healthy and COPD groups. Limitations of the four-parameter constant-phase model are shown in relation to frequency-dependent impedance values within the range 4-48 Hz. The results clearly show that the five-parameter constant-phase model outperforms the four-parameter constant-phase model in this frequency range. The averaged error is 0.02 and 0.04 for healthy subjects in the five-parameter and four-parameter constant-phase models, respectively. The results show that the identified model values are sensitive to variations between healthy and COPD lungs.

A mechanical model of soft biological tissue--an application to lung parenchyma.

This paper presents a fractal mechanical model for branching systems, with application to the respiratory system. Assuming a dichotomously branching tree, each airway tube is modeled by a Kelvin-Voigt model (a spring in parallel with a dashpot) using morphological values. The model allows investigations on the viscoelastic properties within the context of inter-connections between levels of the respiratory tree. The results are in agreement with physiological expectancy. The model presented in this paper can also serve to derive a mechanical model for other branching systems, i.e. the circulatory system.

Mechanical properties of the respiratory system derived from morphologic insight.

This paper aims to provide the mechanical parameters of the respiratory airways (resistance, inertance, and compliance) from morphological insight, in order to facilitate the correlations of fractional-order models with pathologic changes. The approach consists of taking into account wall thickness, inner radius, tube length, and tissue structure for each airway level to combine them into a set of equations for modeling the pressure drop, flow, wall elasticity, and air velocity (axial and radial). Effects of pulmonary disease affecting the inner radius and elastic modulus of bronchial tree are discussed. A brief comparison with the circulatory system, which poses similarities with the respiratory system, is also given. The derived mechanical parameters can serve as elements in a transmission line equivalent, whose structure preserves the geometry of the human respiratory tree. The mechanical parameters derived in this paper offer the possibility to evaluate input impedance by altering the morphological parameters in relation to the pulmonary disease. In this way, we obtain a simple, yet accurate, model to simulate and understand specific effects in respiratory diseases; e.g., airway remodeling. The final scope of the research is to relate the variations in airway structure with disease to the values of fractional-order model parameters.

Relations between fractional-order model parameters and lung pathology in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

In this study, changes in respiratory mechanics from healthy and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) diagnosed patients are observed from identified fractional-order (FO) model parameters. The noninvasive forced oscillation technique is employed for lung function testing. Parameters on tissue damping and elastance are analyzed with respect to lung pathology and additional indexes developed from the identified model. The observations show that the proposed model may be used to detect changes in respiratory mechanics and offers a clear-cut separation between the healthy and COPD subject groups. Our conclusion is that an FO model is able to capture changes in viscoelasticity of the soft tissue in lungs with disease. Apart from this, nonlinear effects present in the measured signals were observed and analyzed via signal processing techniques and led to supporting evidence in relation to the expected phenomena from lung pathology in healthy and COPD patients.