Household and Hospitalization Costs of Pediatric Dengue Illness in Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Dengue, a mosquito-borne viral infection that affects millions around the world, poses a substantial economic burden in endemic countries. We conducted a prospective costing study in hospitalized pediatric dengue patients at the Lady Ridgeway Hospital for Children (LRHC), a public pediatric hospital in Colombo district, Sri Lanka, to assess household out-of-pocket and hospitalization costs of dengue in pediatric patients during peak dengue transmission season. Between August and October 2013, we recruited 216 hospitalized patients (aged 0-3 years, 27%; 4-7 years, 29%; 8-12 years, 42%) who were clinically or laboratory diagnosed with dengue. Using 2013 US dollars, household out-of-pocket spending, on average, was US$59 (SD 49) per episode and increased with disease severity (DF, US$52; DHF/DSS, US$78). Pediatric dengue patients received free-of-charge medical care during hospitalization at LRHC, and this places a high financial burden on hospitals. The direct medical cost of hospitalization was US$68 (SD 31.4) for DF episode, and US$122.7 (SD 65.2) for DHF/DSS episode. Yet a hospitalized dengue illness episode still accounted for 20% to 35% of household monthly income due to direct and indirect costs. Additionally, a majority of caregivers (70%) sought outpatient care before hospitalization, most of whom (81%) visited private health facilities. Our findings indicate that hospitalized pediatric dengue illness poses a nontrivial cost burden to households and healthcare systems, emphasizing the importance of preventing and controlling the transmission of dengue in endemic countries.

The Social Health Insurance Scheme for Pubic Sector Employees in Sri Lanka and Its Effect on Reducing the Financial Burden of Illness.

Agrahara is a mandatory social health insurance scheme providing coverage mostly for inpatient care for the public sector employees in Sri Lanka. For the 20 years of its' existence there is no clear evidence on its' effectiveness in reducing the financial burden due to ill health. We conducted a cross-sectional study among public sector employees (n = 500) in one district. Utilizing outpatient care was associated with a higher incidence of catastrophic health expenditure (29.4%) than utilizing inpatient care (7.2%). The poorest income quintile was at higher odds of facing catastrophic health expenditure than the richest. The social health insurance scheme with its lower utilization rate (38%) had only been able to protect 25% of households from catastrophe. Thus, alternative options to reduce out-of-pocket expenditure of outpatient care are needed. To improve the utilization rates of the social health insurance scheme, a wider benefit package, a cost-efficient delivery of government inpatient care, and improving awareness of the social health insurance policy are suggested.

Economic costs of alcohol use in Sri Lanka.

AIM: Alcohol related disease conditions are responsible for a significant proportion of morbidity and mortality in Sri Lanka. This study quantified the economic cost of selected alcohol related disease conditions in Sri Lanka in 2015. METHODS: This study uses the prevalence-based cost of illness methodology specified by the World Health Organization, and uses the gross costing approach. The direct costs includes the costs of curative care (inpatient and outpatient care borne by the state and out of pocket expenditure borne by patients) for alcohol related diseases, weighted by the respective population attributable fractions. Indirect costs consist of lost earnings due to absenteeism of the patient and carers due to seeking care and recuperation, and the loss of income due to mortality. Data form the Ministry of Health, Registrar General's Department, Department of Census and Statistics and the National Cancer Registry was used. Systemic and house costs and population attributable fractions were obtained from research studies. Economists, Public Health Experts, Medical Administrators and Clinical Specialists were iteratively consulted during the estimation and validation of the costs and the results. RESULTS: The estimated present value of current and future economic cost of the alcohol-related conditions for Sri Lanka in 2015 was USD 885.86 million, 1.07% of the GDP of that year. The direct cost of alcohol related disease conditions was USD 388.35 million, which was 44% of the total cost, while the indirect cost was USD 497.50 million, which was 66% of the total cost. Road Injury cost was the highest cost category among the conditions studied. CONCLUSION: Addressing alcohol use and its harms through effective implementation of evidence-based polices and interventions is urgently required to address the economic costs of alcohol use in Sri Lanka as it imposes a significant burden to the country.

Economic cost of tobacco-related cancers in Sri Lanka.

INTRODUCTION: Cancer has a high mortality rate and morbidity burden in Sri Lanka. This study estimated the economic cost of smoking and smokeless tobacco (ST) related to cancers in Sri Lanka in 2015. METHODS: Prevalence-based cost of illness is calculated according to the guidelines of the WHO (2011). The direct costs are costs of curative care (costs of inward patients and outpatient care borne by the state and out of pocket expenditure by households) for tobacco-related cancers, weighted by the attributable fractions for these cancers. Indirect costs are lost earnings due to mortality and morbidity (absenteeism of both patient and carers resulting from seeking care and recuperation).Data were obtained from the Registrar General's Department, National Cancer Registry, Department of Census and Statistics and the Central Bank of Sri Lanka. Household and systemic costs and relative risks were extracted from research studies. Oncologists (working in both public and private sectors), other clinical specialists, medical administrators and economists were consulted during the estimation and validation processes. RESULTS: The total economic cost of tobacco-related cancers for Sri Lanka in 2015 was estimated to be US$121.2 million. The direct cost of smoking and ST-related cancers was US$42.1 million, which was 35% of the total cost, while the indirect cost was US$79.1 million, which was 65% of the total cost. CONCLUSION: Burden of tobacco smoking and ST-related cancers as reflected in these economic costs is enormous: affecting the healthcare system and country's economy. Policymakers should take note of this burden and address tobacco consumption control as a priority.

Efficacy, Safety and Cost-Effectiveness of Thermotherapy in the Treatment of Leishmania donovani-Induced Cutaneous Leishmaniasis: A Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial.

Leishmania donovani causes cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in Sri Lanka. Standard treatment is multiple, painful doses of intralesional sodium stibogluconate (IL-SSG). Treatment failures are increasingly reported, hence the need to investigate alternatives. Efficacy, safety, and cost-effectiveness of thermotherapy were assessed for the first time for L. donovani CL. A single blinded noninferiority randomized controlled trial was conducted on new laboratory-confirmed CL patients with single lesions (N = 213). Selected patients were randomly assigned to 1) test group (N = 98; single session of radiofrequency-induced heat therapy (RFHT) given at 50°C for 30 seconds) and 2) control group (N = 115; 1-3 mL IL-SSG given weekly, until cure/10 doses). Patients were followed-up fortnightly for 12 weeks to assess clinical cure. Cost of treatment was assessed using scenario building technique. Cure rates by 8, 10, and 12 weeks in RFHT group were 46.5%, 56.5%, and 65.9% as opposed to 28%, 40.8%, and 59.4% in IL-SSG group, with no major adverse events. Cure rate by RFHT was significantly higher at 8 weeks (P = 0.009, odds ratio [OR]: 2.236, confidence interval [CI]: 1.217-4.108) and 10 weeks (P = 0.035, OR: 1.881, CI: 1.044-3.388), but comparable thereafter. Cost of RFHT was 7 times less (USD = 1.54/patient) than IL-SSG (USD = 11.09/patient). A single application of RFHT is safe, cost-effective, and convenient, compared with multiple doses of IL-SSG in the treatment of L. donovani CL. Therefore, RFHT would be considered noninferior as per trial outcome when compared with standard IL-SSG therapy with multiple benefits for the patient and the national health care system.

Costing of immunization service provision in Kalutara district, Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Immunization is regarded as the single most cost-effective way to prevent vaccine-preventable diseases. With the rising cost of the National Immunization Programme (NIP) in Sri Lanka, immunization costing studies could help programme managers to ensure sustainable immunization financing in the country. METHODS: Four medical officer of health (MOH) divisions in Kalutara district were included, to estimate the cost incurred for the NIP programme. Fifteen immunization clinics from urban and rural settings were selected from the selected MOH divisions, by a simple random sampling method. Data were collected for a period of 3 months, using pretested check-lists. In addition, related data at national and district levels were also collected. Cost estimates were made for direct capital and recurrent costs. RESULTS: The cost of vaccines under the national immunization schedule for infants was 1361.84 SL Rs (US$ 10.32). For children under 5 years of age, it was 1535.64 SL Rs (US$ 11.63). The majority of these costs were direct recurrent costs (93.4%). Vaccines (84.3%) and staff salaries (6.4%) were the main components of direct recurrent costs, while cold-chain equipment (5.3%) was the main contributor to direct capital cost. CONCLUSION: The cost of vaccine is the highest proportion among all other cost components in the NIP in Sri Lanka, and this is largely attributable to new costly vaccines. Staff payments are not significant, as they are a shared cost of public health service providers. Studies exploring the costing of the NIP in the country would be beneficial, to ensure sustainable immunization financing.

Universal health coverage and the health Sustainable Development Goal: achievements and challenges for Sri Lanka.

With state-funded health care that is free at the point of delivery, a sound primary health-care policy and widespread health-care services, Sri Lanka seems a good example of universal health coverage. Yet, health transition and disparities in provision and financing threaten this situation. Sri Lanka did well on the Millennium Development Goal health indicators, but the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) for health has a wider purview, which is to "ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages". The gender gap in life expectancy and the gap between life expectancy and healthy life expectancy make achievement of the health SDG more challenging. Although women and children do well overall, the comparative health disadvantage for men in Sri Lanka is a cause for concern. From a financing perspective, high out-of-pocket expenditure and high utilization of the private sector, even by those in the lowest income quintile, are concerns, as is the emerging "third tier", where some individuals accessing state health care that is free at the point of delivery actually bear some of the costs of drugs, investigations and surgery. This cost sharing is resulting in catastrophic health expenditure for individuals, and delays in and non-compliance with treatment. These concerns about provision and financing must be addressed, as health transition will intensify the morbidity burden and loss of well-being, and could derail plans to achieve the health SDG.