Intertarsal Joint Stabilization in a Bateleur Eagle (Terathopius ecaudatus) Using a Novel Application of a Braided Suture and Titanium Button System.

A 32-year-old adult captive male bateleur eagle (Terathopius ecaudatus) with a history of laxity, degenerative joint disease, and varus deviation of the distal left hindlimb for several years was presented for evaluation of left hindlimb lameness and was diagnosed with chronic subluxation of the left intertarsal joint. After failing to improve with conservative management and pain medication, surgical stabilization of the joint was performed using a novel application of a braided suture and titanium button system. Unsatisfactory clinical improvement and postsurgical reevaluation indicated that the initial surgical stabilization was unsuccessful. The surgery was repeated, and the animal showed postsurgical improvement in intertarsal joint stability, weight-bearing, and lameness for a period of several years with use and adjustment of chronic pain medications. The novel surgical technique described in this case report represents an additional treatment option for management of avian intertarsal joint subluxations. Presurgical planning should consider the unique anatomic features and variability of the avian tarsometatarsus to avoid surgical complications.

Amoebic meningoencephalitis and disseminated infection caused by Balamuthia mandrillaris in a Western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla).

CASE DESCRIPTION A 22-year-old male gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) housed in a zoo was evaluated for signs of lethargy, head-holding, and cervical stiffness followed by development of neurologic abnormalities including signs of depression, lip droop, and tremors. CLINICAL FINDINGS Physical examination under general anesthesia revealed a tooth root abscess and suboptimal body condition. A CBC and serum biochemical analysis revealed mild anemia, neutrophilia and eosinopenia consistent with a stress leukogram, and signs consistent with dehydration. Subsequent CSF analysis revealed lymphocytic pleocytosis and markedly increased total protein concentration. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME Despite treatment with antimicrobials, steroids, and additional supportive care measures, the gorilla's condition progressed to an obtunded mentation with grand mal seizures over the course of 10 days. Therefore, the animal was euthanized and necropsy was performed. Multifocal areas of malacia and hemorrhage were scattered throughout the brain; on histologic examination, these areas consisted of necrosis and hemorrhage associated with mixed inflammation, vascular necrosis, and intralesional amoebic trophozoites. Tan foci were also present in the kidneys and pancreas. Immunohistochemical testing positively labeled free-living amoebae within the brain, kidneys, eyes, pancreas, heart, and pulmonary capillaries. Subsequent PCR assay of CSF and frozen kidney samples identified the organism as Balamuthia mandrillaris, confirming a diagnosis of amoebic meningoencephalitis. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Infection with B mandrillaris has been reported to account for 2.8% of captive gorilla deaths in North America over the past 19 years. Clinicians working with gorillas should have a high index of suspicion for this diagnosis when evaluating and treating animals with signs of centrally localized neurologic disease.

Identifying and managing an adverse food reaction in a polar bear (Ursus maritimus) by an elimination diet trial.

A 16-yr-old polar bear (Ursus maritimus) presented with severe diarrhea shortly following transfer to the North Carolina Zoological Park. Multiple diagnostic procedures were performed over several months and the cause of the chronic diarrhea was inconclusive. Histologically, colonic mucosal biopsies were consistent with severe chronic eosinophilic and lymphoplasmacytic colitis with no evidence of etiologic agents present. A dietary elimination trial was conducted and an adverse food reaction to the dog chow in the diet was confirmed.

Nutritional support of reptile patients.

Providing nutritional support to reptile patients is a challenging and often misunderstood task. Ill reptiles are frequently anorexic and can benefit greatly from appropriate nutrition delivered via a variety of assist-feeding techniques. Neonatal reptiles can also be very challenging patients because many fail to thrive without significant efforts to establish normal feeding behaviors. This article presents ideas supporting the benefit of timely nutritional support as well as specific recommendations for implementation of assist feeding. Also discussed are a few nutritional issues that affect captive reptile species.

Malignant hypertension and retinopathy in a western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla).

BACKGROUND: A 34-year-old western lowland gorilla presented with peracute blindness. METHODS: Clinical evaluation, diagnostic imaging, laboratory analyses, blood pressure measurements, and necropsy were performed. RESULTS: The clinical and postmortem findings supported malignant hypertension. CONCLUSIONS: We describe a case of naturally occurring hypertensive encephalopathy and retinopathy in a gorilla.

Comparison of isoflurane and carbon dioxide anesthesia in Chilean rose tarantulas (Grammostola rosea).

This study investigated the use of two anesthetic agents, isoflurane and carbon dioxide, in Chilean rose tarantulas (Grammostola rosea). We compared the onset, duration of anesthesia, and recovery time with both gases, and made observations regarding the effects of the anesthetic protocols. Subjectively, episodes for the isoflurane animals were uneventful. The spiders were calm throughout and did not respond adversely to gas exposure. Conversely, animals anesthetized with carbon dioxide experienced violent inductions and recoveries; the tarantulas appeared agitated when the carbon dioxide flow began. Seizure-like activity and defecation would frequently be noted prior to induction with carbon dioxide. Neither isoflurane nor carbon dioxide seemed to have any clinically apparent short- or long-term impact. The animals were all normal for at least 1-year postexperiment. Future studies should focus on defining the impact, if any, that these anesthetic agents have on the health of invertebrate species.

Vesiculobullous skin reaction temporally related to firocoxib treatment in a white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum).

A 40 yr-old female white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) suffered from chronic nail-bed abscesses. Due to worsening of clinical signs, the animal's nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory treatment was switched to firocoxib. Approximately 7 days after this change, the animal developed multifocal vesicles and bullae along the lateral aspects of the thorax and abdomen, the dorsum, and the proximal limbs. Cytology and culture did not identify an infectious etiology. Histologically, the lesions consisted of a severe, subacute vesiculobullous dermatitis with intraepidermal to subepidermal clefting with areas of individual keratinocyte necrosis and minor neutrophilic epidermal infiltrates. These findings are similar to those seen in some drug reactions in people; therefore an adverse drug reaction to the firocoxib was suspected.

Ventricular diverticula formation in captive parakeet auklets (Aethia psittacula) secondary to foreign body ingestion.

A captive parakeet auklet at the North Carolina Zoo evaluated for weight loss, lethargy, and dyspnea had radiographic evidence of a distended, stone-filled ventriculus (bird 1). Multiple stones (n = 76) were removed surgically, but the bird died and a large ventricular diverticulum was diagnosed at necropsy. This bird and seven other parakeet auklets had been transferred 3 yr earlier from a zoo in Ohio. Radiographic investigation revealed that 6 of 7 Ohio birds had stones in their ventriculus (n= 2-26), but only 1 of 7 radiographed North Carolina Zoo auklets had one small stone. Further diagnostic imaging (survey and contrast radiographs, fluoroscopy, CT scans [n = 2]) of six Ohio and two North Carolina birds was conducted to determine if other birds had ventricular abnormalities (birds 2-9). No ventricular diverticula were diagnosed using imaging techniques, although two Ohio birds (birds 6 and 7) required surgical intervention to remove 12-26 stones. A small ventricular diverticulum was identified in bird 6 during surgery. That bird died of unrelated causes 11 mo after surgery, but bird 7 remains clinically normal more than 4 yr later, along with four other auklets with stones (n = 2-15; birds 2-5). It is possible that without surgical intervention, these birds may develop ventricular disease, presumably due to chronic mechanical trauma to the thin-walled ventriculus. It was hypothesized that the Ohio birds ingested stones in their previous exhibit, with a loose stone substrate, and retained them for at least 3 yr. Possible causes for stone ingestion include trituration (for grinding, mixing coarse ingesta), gastric parasite reduction, hunger suppression, accidental ingestion while feeding, or behavioral causes, but the underlying cause in these birds was not determined. Based on these results, parakeet auklets and other alcids should not be housed, or at least fed, on a loose stone substrate.

Suspected anaphylaxis to leuprolide acetate depot in two elf owls (Micrathene whitneyi).

Two adult female elf owls (Micrathene whitneyi) were treated with leuprolide acetate depot injections to prevent egg laying. The birds were treated for several years without complications. Several years into the treatment regimen, both birds died immediately after receiving an injection of leuprolide acetate. Remaining drug was analyzed, revealing 95.7% potency. We suspect that either an immediate Type 1 hypersensitivity reaction occurred or a contaminant was present, resulting in the fatalities of these elf owls. No reports of anaphylaxis to leuprolide acetate in birds were identified in the literature. Clinicians should be aware of the possibility of anaphylaxis when administering this medication to avian patients.

Medical and surgical management of reproductive neoplasia in two western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla).

BACKGROUND: Reports of female reproductive tract neoplasia are infrequent in great apes. METHODS: Two captive-born, female western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) housed at the North Carolina Zoological Park were diagnosed with reproductive neoplasia. RESULTS: The first gorilla had uterine endometrial thickening and uterine fibroids diagnosed during a routine annual examination. Subsequently, the animal underwent several uterine curettage procedures in an attempt to debulk the uterine mass. Biopsy results indicated uterine adenocarcinoma. The animal was treated with an ovariohysterectomy followed by a combination of megestrol acetate and medroxyprogesterone acetate. The second gorilla was diagnosed with squamous cell carcinoma of the vagina, cervix, and uterus after presenting for intermittent vaginal bleeding of 1-month duration. This animal underwent palliative radiation therapy, receiving two rounds of radiation treatment 8 weeks apart. CONCLUSIONS: The following report describes the diagnosis and management of the two cases.

Captive invertebrate nutrition.

The ability to maintain and propagate a species of animal in captivity is dependent on being able to provide adequate nutrition. Although the exact nutritional requirements of many invertebrate species are unknown, most commonly kept species are quite adaptable and seem to thrive on very basic diets. Veterinarians are often called upon to devise diets for captive invertebrates in research, display, and production facilities. A thorough knowledge of the natural history of the species is critical in developing dietary plans. This article focuses on terrestrial arthropods in the orders Insecta and Arachnida.

Urinary bladder incarceration and infarction by an intra-abdominal fat pad in a Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana).

A 2.5-year-old, female opossum had acute stranguria. Based on radiography and ultrasonographic examination a cystic structure was identified in the caudal abdomen associated with bilateral hydroureter and hydronephrosis. This structure contained a neutrophilic fluid, determined to be urine. There was a neutrophilic leukocytosis. Serum chemistry values were within normal limits. The opossum was euthanized. An intra-abdominal fat pad incarceration of the urinary bladder above the trigone was present, resulting in complete obstruction of the urinary bladder and partial obstruction of the ureters. Vessels to the bladder were involved in the incarceration which resulted in vascular compromise and infarction of the bladder. Mild to moderate hydroureter and hydronephrosis were present.