Nanotechnology-based theranostic and prophylactic approaches against SARS-CoV-2.

SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic has been an unpredicted burden on global healthcare system by infecting over 700 million individuals, with approximately 6 million deaths worldwide. COVID-19 significantly impacted all sectors, but it very adversely affected the healthcare system. These effects were much more evident in the resource limited part of the world. Individuals with acute conditions were also severely impacted. Although classical COVID-19 diagnostics such as RT-PCR and rapid antibody testing have played a crucial role in reducing the spread of infection, these diagnostic techniques are associated with certain limitations. For instance, drawback of RT-PCR diagnostics is that due to degradation of viral RNA during shipping, it can give false negative results. Also, rapid antibody testing majorly depends on the phase of infection and cannot be performed on immune compromised individuals. These limitations in current diagnostic tools require the development of nanodiagnostic tools for early detection of COVID-19 infection. Therefore, the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak has necessitated the development of specific, responsive, accurate, rapid, low-cost, and simple-to-use diagnostic tools at point of care. In recent years, early detection has been a challenge for several health diseases that require prompt attention and treatment. Disease identification at an early stage, increased imaging of inner health issues, and ease of diagnostic processes have all been established using a new discipline of laboratory medicine called nanodiagnostics, even before symptoms have appeared. Nanodiagnostics refers to the application of nanoparticles (material with size equal to or less than 100 nm) for medical diagnostic purposes. The special property of nanomaterials compared to their macroscopic counterparts is a lesser signal loss and an enhanced electromagnetic field. Nanosize of the detection material also enhances its sensitivity and increases the signal to noise ratio. Microchips, nanorobots, biosensors, nanoidentification of single-celled structures, and microelectromechanical systems are some of the most modern nanodiagnostics technologies now in development. Here, we have highlighted the important roles of nanotechnology in healthcare sector, with a detailed focus on the management of the COVID-19 pandemic. We outline the different types of nanotechnology-based diagnostic devices for SARS-CoV-2 and the possible applications of nanomaterials in COVID-19 treatment. We also discuss the utility of nanomaterials in formulating preventive strategies against SARS-CoV-2 including their use in manufacture of protective equipment, formulation of vaccines, and strategies for directly hindering viral infection. We further discuss the factors hindering the large-scale accessibility of nanotechnology-based healthcare applications and suggestions for overcoming them.

Role of Immunoglobulin A in COVID-19 and Influenza Infections.

Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is critical in the immune response against respiratory infections like COVID-19 and influenza [...].

Children's SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Their Vaccination.

SARS-CoV-2, a novel coronavirus, causes respiratory tract infections and other complications in affected individuals, and has resulted in numerous deaths worldwide. The unprecedented pace of its transmission worldwide, and the resultant heavy burden on healthcare systems everywhere, prompted efforts to have effective therapeutic strategies and vaccination candidates available to the global population. While aged and immunocompromised individuals form a high-risk group for COVID-19 and have severe disease outcome, the rate of infections among children has also increased with the emergence of the Omicron variant. In addition, recent reports of threatening SARS-CoV-2-associated complications in children have brought to the forefront an urgent necessity for vaccination. In this article, we discuss the current scenario of SARS-CoV-2 infections in children with a special focus on the differences in their immune system response as compared to adults. Further, we describe the various available COVID-19 vaccines, including the recent bivalent vaccines for children, in detail, intending to increase willingness for their acceptance.

Blau syndrome NOD2 mutations result in loss of NOD2 cross-regulatory function.

The studies described here provide an analysis of the pathogenesis of Blau syndrome and thereby the function of NOD2 as seen through the lens of its dysfunction resulting from Blau-associated NOD2 mutations in its nucleotide-binding domain (NBD). As such, this analysis also sheds light on the role of NOD2 risk polymorphisms in the LRR domain occurring in Crohn's disease. The main finding was that Blau NOD2 mutations precipitate a loss of canonical NOD2 signaling via RIPK2 and that this loss has two consequences: first, it results in defective NOD2 ligand (MDP)-mediated NF-κB activation and second, it disrupts NOD2-mediated cross-regulation whereby NOD2 downregulates concomitant innate (TLR) responses. Strong evidence is also presented favoring the view that NOD2-mediated cross-regulation is under mechanistic control by IRF4 and that failure to up-regulate this factor because of faulty NOD2 signaling is the proximal cause of defective cross-regulation and the latter's effect on Blau syndrome inflammation. Overall, these studies highlight the role of NOD2 as a regulatory factor and thus provide additional insight into its function in inflammatory disease. Mutations in the nucleotide binding domain of the CARD15 (NOD2) gene underlie the granulomatous inflammation characterizing Blau syndrome (BS). In studies probing the mechanism of this inflammation we show here that NOD2 plasmids expressing various Blau mutations in HEK293 cells result in reduced NOD2 activation of RIPK2 and correspondingly reduced NOD2 activation of NF-κB. These in vitro studies of NOD2 signaling were accompanied by in vivo studies showing that BS-NOD2 also exhibit defects in cross-regulation of innate responses underlying inflammation. Thus, whereas over-expressed intact NOD2 suppresses TNBS-colitis, over-expressed BS-NOD2 does not; in addition, whereas administration of NOD2 ligand (muramyl dipeptide, MDP) suppresses DSS-colitis in Wild Type (WT) mice it fails to do so in homozygous or heterozygous mice bearing a NOD2 Blau mutation. Similarly, mice bearing a Blau mutation exhibit enhanced anti-collagen antibody-induced arthritis. The basis of such cross-regulatory failure was revealed in studies showing that MDP-stimulated cells bearing BS-NOD2 exhibit a reduced capacity to signal via RIPK2 as well as a reduced capacity to up-regulate IRF4, a factor shown previously to mediate NOD2 suppression of NF-κB activation. Indeed, TLR-stimulated cells bearing a Blau mutation exhibited enhanced in vitro cytokine responses that are quieted by lentivirus transduction of IRF4. In addition, enhanced anti-collagen-induced joint inflammation in mice bearing a Blau mutation was accompanied by reduced IRF4 expression in inflamed joint tissue and IRF4 expression was reduced in MDP-stimulated cells from BS patients. Thus, inflammation characterizing Blau syndrome are caused, at least in part, by faulty canonical signaling and reduce IRF4-mediated cross-regulation.

A role for cell-autocrine interleukin-2 in regulatory T-cell homeostasis.

Activated T-cells make both interleukin-2 (IL2) and its high-affinity receptor component CD25. Regulatory CD4 T-cells (Treg cells) do not make IL2, and the IL2-CD25 circuit is considered a paracrine circuit crucial in their generation and maintenance. Yet, all T-cells are capable of making IL2 at some stage during differentiation, making a cell-intrinsic autocrine circuit additionally possible. When we re-visited experiments with mixed bone marrow chimeras using a wide range of ratios of wild-type (WT) and IL2-/- genotype progenitors, we found that, as expected, thymic Treg cells were almost equivalent between WT and IL2-/- genotypes at ratios with WT prominence. However, at WT-limiting ratios, the IL2-/- genotype showed lower thymic Treg frequencies, indicating a role for cell-intrinsic autocrine IL2 in thymic Treg generation under IL2-limiting conditions. Further, peripheral IL2-/- naive CD4 T-cells showed poor conversion to inducible Tregs (pTregs) both in vivo and in vitro, again indicating a significant role for cell-intrinsic autocrine IL2 in their generation. Peripherally, the IL2-/- genotype was less prominent at all WT:IL2-/- ratios among both thymic Tregs (tTregs) and pTregs, adoptively transferred IL2-/- Tregs showed poorer survival than WT Tregs did, and RNA-seq analysis of WT and IL2-/- Tregs showed interesting differences in the T-cell receptor and transforming growth factor-beta-bone morphogenetic protein-JNK pathways between them, suggesting a non-titrating role for cell-intrinsic autocrine IL2 in Treg programming. These data indicate that cell-intrinsic autocrine IL2 plays significant roles in Treg generation and maintenance.

Role of NF-kappaB2-p100 in regulatory T cell homeostasis and activation.

The immunological roles of the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) pathway are mediated via the canonical components in immune responses and via non-canonical components in immune organogenesis and homeostasis, although the two components are capable of crosstalk. Regulatory CD4 T cells (Tregs) are homeostatically functional and represent an interesting potential meeting point of these two NF-κB components. We show that mice deficient in the non-canonical NF-κB component gene Nfkb2 (p100) had normal thymic development and suppressive function of Tregs. However, they had enhanced frequencies of peripheral 'effector-phenotype' Tregs (eTregs). In bi-parental chimeras of wild-type (WT) and Nfkb2-/- mice, the Nfkb2-/- genotype was over-represented in Tregs, with a further increase in the relative prominence of eTregs. Consistent with distinct properties of eTregs, the Nfkb2-/- genotype was more prominent in Tregs in extra-lymphoid tissues such as liver in the bi-parental chimeras. The Nfkb2-/- Tregs also displayed greater survival, activation and proliferation in vivo. These Nfkb2-/- Tregs showed higher nuclear NF-κB activity mainly comprising of RelB-containing dimers, in contrast to the prominence of cRel- and RelA-containing dimers in WT Tregs. Since p100 is an inhibitor of RelB activation as well as a participant as cleaved p52 in RelB nuclear activity, we tested bi-parental chimeras of WT and Relb-/- mice, and found normal frequencies of Relb-/- Tregs and eTregs in these chimeric mice. Our findings confirm and extend recent data, and indicate that p100 normally restrains RelB-mediated Treg activation, and in the absence of p100, p50-RelB dimers can contribute to Treg activation.

Functionally significant metabolic differences between B and T lymphocyte lineages.

Activation of B and T lymphocytes leads to major remodelling of the metabolic landscape of the cells enabling their post-activation functions. However, naive B and T lymphocytes also show metabolic differences, and the genesis, nature and functional significance of these differences are not yet well understood. Here we show that resting B-cells appeared to have lower energy demands than resting T-cells as they consumed lower levels of glucose and fatty acids and produced less ATP. Resting B-cells are more dependent on OXPHOS, while T-cells show more dependence on aerobic glycolysis. However, despite an apparently higher energy demand, T lineage cells showed lower rates of protein synthesis than equivalent B lineage stages. These metabolic differences between the two lineages were established early during lineage differentiation, and were functionally significant. Higher levels of protein synthesis in B-cells were associated with increased synthesis of MHC class II molecules and other proteins associated with antigen internalization, transport and presentation. The combination of higher energy demand and lower protein synthesis in T-cells was consistent with their higher ATP-dependent motility. Our data provide an integrated perspective of the metabolic differences and their functional implications between the B and T lymphocyte lineages.

A TNF-p100 pathway subverts noncanonical NF-κB signaling in inflamed secondary lymphoid organs.

Lymphotoxin-beta receptor (LTßR) present on stromal cells engages the noncanonical NF-κB pathway to mediate RelB-dependent expressions of homeostatic chemokines, which direct steady-state ingress of naïve lymphocytes to secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs). In this pathway, NIK promotes partial proteolysis of p100 into p52 that induces nuclear translocation of the RelB NF-κB heterodimers. Microbial infections often deplete homeostatic chemokines; it is thought that infection-inflicted destruction of stromal cells results in the downregulation of these chemokines. Whether inflammation per se also regulates these processes remains unclear. We show that TNF accumulated upon non-infectious immunization of mice similarly downregulates the expressions of these chemokines and consequently diminishes the ingress of naïve lymphocytes in inflamed SLOs. Mechanistically, TNF inactivated NIK in LTßR-stimulated cells and induced the synthesis of Nfkb2 mRNA encoding p100; these together potently accumulated unprocessed p100, which attenuated the RelB activity as inhibitory IκBδ. Finally, a lack of p100 alleviated these TNF-mediated inhibitions in inflamed SLOs of immunized Nfkb2-/- mice. In sum, we reveal that an inhibitory TNF-p100 pathway modulates the adaptive compartment during immune responses.

SUMOylation pathway alteration coupled with downregulation of SUMO E2 enzyme at mucosal epithelium modulates inflammation in inflammatory bowel disease.

Post-translational modification pathways such as SUMOylation are integral to all cellular processes and tissue homeostasis. We investigated the possible involvement of SUMOylation in the epithelial signalling in Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), the two major forms of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Initially in a murine model of IBD, induced by dextran-sulfate-sodium (DSS mice), we observed inflammation accompanied by a lowering of global SUMOylation of colonic epithelium. The observed SUMOylation alteration was due to a decrease in the sole SUMO E2 enzyme (Ubc9). Mass-spectrometric analysis revealed the existence of a distinct SUMOylome (SUMO-conjugated proteome) in DSS mice with alteration of key cellular regulators, including master kinase Akt1. Knocking-down of Ubc9 in epithelial cells resulted in dramatic activation of inflammatory gene expression, a phenomenon that acted via reduction in Akt1 and its SUMOylated form. Importantly, a strong decrease in Ubc9 and Akt1 was also seen in endoscopic biopsy samples (N = 66) of human CD and UC patients. Furthermore, patients with maximum disease indices were always accompanied by severely lowered Ubc9 or SUMOylated-Akt1. Mucosal tissues with severely compromised Ubc9 function displayed higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and compromised wound-healing markers. Thus, our results reveal an important and previously undescribed role for the SUMOylation pathway involving Ubc9 and Akt1 in modulation of epithelial inflammatory signalling in IBD.

Mediation of transitional B cell maturation in the absence of functional Bruton's tyrosine kinase.

X-linked immune-deficient (Xid) mice, carrying a mutation in Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk), have multiple B cell lineage differentiation defects. We now show that, while Xid mice showed only mild reduction in the frequency of the late transitional (T2) stage of peripheral B cells, the defect became severe when the Xid genotype was combined with either a CD40-null, a TCRbeta-null or an MHC class II (MHCII)-null genotype. Purified Xid T1 and T2 B cells survived poorly in vitro compared to wild-type (WT) cells. BAFF rescued WT but not Xid T1 and T2 B cells from death in culture, while CD40 ligation equivalently rescued both. Xid transitional B cells ex vivo showed low levels of the p100 protein substrate for non-canonical NF-kappaB signalling. In vitro, CD40 ligation induced equivalent activation of the canonical but not of the non-canonical NF-kappaB pathway in Xid and WT T1 and T2 B cells. CD40 ligation efficiently rescued p100-null T1 B cells from neglect-induced death in vitro. These data indicate that CD40-mediated signals, likely from CD4 T cells, can mediate peripheral transitional B cell maturation independent of Btk and the non-canonical NF-kappaB pathway, and thus contribute to the understanding of the complexities of peripheral B cell maturation.