Non-communicable disease care in Sierra Leone: a mixed-methods study of the drivers and barriers to retention in care for hypertension.

OBJECTIVE: To retrospectively analyse routinely collected data on the drivers and barriers to retention in chronic care for patients with hypertension in the Kono District of Sierra Leone. DESIGN: Convergent mixed-methods study. SETTING: Koidu Government Hospital, a secondary-level hospital in Kono District. PARTICIPANTS: We conducted a descriptive analysis of key variables for 1628 patients with hypertension attending the non-communicable disease (NCD) clinic between February 2018 and August 2019 and qualitative interviews with 21 patients and 7 staff to assess factors shaping patients' retention in care at the clinic. OUTCOMES: Three mutually exclusive outcomes were defined for the study period: adherence to the treatment protocol (attending >80% of scheduled visits); loss-to-follow-up (LTFU) (consecutive 6 months of missed appointments) and engaged in (but not fully adherent) with treatment (<80% attendance). RESULTS: 57% of patients were adherent, 20% were engaged in treatment and 22% were LTFU. At enrolment, in the unadjusted variables, patients with higher systolic and diastolic blood pressures had better adherence than those with lower blood pressures (OR 1.005, 95% CI 1.002 to 1.009, p=0.004 and OR 1.008, 95% CI 1.004 to 1.012, p<0.001, respectively). After adjustment, there were 14% lower odds of adherence to appointments associated with a 1 month increase in duration in care (OR 0.862, 95% CI 0.801 to 0.927, p<0.001). Qualitative findings highlighted the following drivers for retention in care: high-quality education sessions, free medications and good interpersonal interactions. Challenges to seeking care included long wait times, transport costs and misunderstanding of the long-term requirement for hypertension care. CONCLUSION: Free medications, high-quality services and health education may be effective ways of helping NCD patients stay engaged in care. Facility and socioeconomic factors can pose challenges to retention in care.

Representations of an Ebola 'outbreak' through Story Technologies.

BACKGROUND: Attempts to understand biosocial phenomena using scientific methods are often presented as value-neutral and objective; however, when used to reduce the complexity of open systems such as epidemics, these forms of inquiry necessarily entail normative considerations and are therefore fashioned by political worldviews (ideologies). From the standpoint of poststructural theory, the character of these representations is at most limited and partial. In addition, these modes of representation (as stories) do work (as technologies) in the service of, or in resistance to, power. METHODS: We focus on a single Ebola case cluster from the 2013-2016 outbreak in West Africa and examine how different disciplinary forms of knowledge production (including outbreak forecasting, active epidemiological surveillance, post-outbreak serosurveys, political economic analyses, and ethnography) function as Story Technologies. We then explore how these technologies are used to curate 'data,' analysing the erasures, values, and imperatives evoked by each. RESULTS: We call attention to the instrumental-in addition to the descriptive-role Story Technologies play in ordering contingencies and establishing relationships in the wake of health crises. DISCUSSION: By connecting each type of knowledge production with the systems of power it reinforces or disrupts, we illustrate how Story Technologies do ideological work. These findings encourage research from pluriversal perspectives and advocacy for measures that promote more inclusive modes of knowledge production.

Attitudes toward COVID-19 Vaccination: Staff and Patient Perspectives at Six Health Facilities in Sierra Leone.

Sierra Leone is a West African country with a population of over 8 million. With more than half of Sierra Leone's population living in rural areas, it is important to understand rural populations' access to and attitudes toward the COVID-19 vaccine. In November 2021, the rate of vaccination coverage in Sierra Leone was only 7% for one dose and 4% for two doses. Understanding perspectives of health facility staff and patients can help strengthen future vaccine campaigns. We conducted a cross-sectional study, between March 2022 and May 2022, of clinical staff, non-clinical staff, and adult (>18 years) patients/caregivers attending six Ministry of Health and Sanitation (MoHS) facilities supported by Partners In Health, four in the Kono district and two in the Western Urban Area district, the capital of Sierra Leone. We assessed the opportunity to vaccinate, vaccine uptake, and intention to vaccinate. Out of the 2015 participants, 11.4% were clinical staff, 18.8% were non-clinical staff, and 69.8% were patients/caregivers. Less than half of the patients/caregivers had the opportunity to be vaccinated (42%), and 22% of patients/caregivers were fully vaccinated. Among the unvaccinated population, 44% would refuse a vaccine if offered to them at no cost. Lack of access to COVID-19 vaccines and to official education messaging, especially for patients and caregivers, is still an underlying problem in Sierra Leone for vaccine uptake, rather than a lack of willingness to be vaccinated.

Community and facility-level barriers to achieving UHC in Kono District, Sierra Leone and Maryland County, Liberia.

Universal Health Coverage (UHC) is achieved when individuals and communities receive the health services they need without suffering financial hardship. However, many countries face barriers to building health systems that enable the availability of affordable, accessible care. The goal of this study was to present a model of local monitoring of barriers and to provide a roadmap for designing interventions that improve access to and use of healthcare delivery systems. We conducted household, individual, and health facility surveys in seven catchment areas in Sierra Leone and Liberia between December 2019 and March 2020. A two-stage cluster sampling method was used to sample households and individuals, and all health facilities were included. We divide access barriers into demand (patient-side care seeking behavior), supply (availability of facilities and services), and their intersection (affordability, spending, and use rates). Among the 2,576 respondents within our 1,051 surveyed households, the propensity to seek care when ill was reported at 90% in Sierra Leone (n = 1,283) and 70% in Liberia (n = 806). We estimated that 31% of households spent greater than 10% of their total expenditure on healthcare in a month, and that 14.5% of households spent greater than 25%. Overall, the general service readiness index mean score for all health centers was around 70%. The greatest hindrance to service readiness was the availability of essential medicines, with facilities reporting an average score of 32% in Sierra Leone and 63% in Liberia. Our evidence suggests that the cost of care is both a barrier to care-seeking and a persisting problem among care-seeking patients. Lack of service availability (essential equipment and medicines), poses a risk to high-quality care. The research team recommends deploying interventions (visit cost subsidies, supply chain improvements) targeted at resolving these issues in order to advance the goal of achieving UHC.

Implementation of a non-communicable disease clinic in rural Sierra Leone: early experiences and lessons learned.

This study is an evaluation of the first cohort of patients enrolled in an outpatient non-communicable disease clinic in Kono, Sierra Leone. In the first year, the clinic enrolled 916 patients. Eight months after the enrollment of the last patient, 53% were still active in care, 43% had been lost to follow-up (LTFU) and 4% had defaulted. Of the LTFU patients, 47% only came for the initial enrollment visit and never returned. Treatment outcomes of three patient groups [HTN only (n = 720), DM only (n = 51), and HTN/DM (n = 96)] were analyzed through a retrospective chart review. On average, all groups experienced reductions in blood pressure and/or blood glucose of approximately 10% and 20%, respectively. The proportions of patients with their condition controlled also increased. As NCDs remain underfunded and under-prioritized in low-income countries, the integrated program in Kono demonstrates the possibility of improving outpatient NCD care in Sierra Leone and similar settings.

Deservingness: migration and health in social context.

This article brings the social science concept of 'deservingness' to bear on clinical cases of transnational migrant patients. Based on the authors' medical social science research, health delivery practice and clinical work from multiple locations in Africa. Europe and the Americas, the article describes three clinical cases in which assumptions of deservingness have significant implications for the morbidity and mortality of migrant patients. The concept of deservingness allows us to maintain a critical awareness of the often unspoken presumptions of which categories of patients are more or less deserving of access to and quality of care, regardless of their formal legal eligibility. Many transnational migrants with ambiguous legal status who rely on public healthcare experience exclusion from care or poor treatment based on notions of deservingness held by health clinic staff, clinicians and health system planners. The article proposes several implications for clinicians, health professional education, policymaking and advocacy. A critical lens on deservingness can help global health professionals, systems and policymakers confront and change entrenched patterns of unequal access to and differential quality of care for migrant patients. In this way, health professionals can work more effectively for global health equity.

Seroprevalence of hepatitis B and hepatitis C among blood donors in Sierra Leone: A multi-year retrospective study.

OBJECTIVES: In Sierra Leone, very little data are available on hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) prevalence. Blood donor screening permits estimation of the prevalence of transfusion transmissible infections in a general open population. We analyzed blood donor data in Sierra Leone to estimate national viral hepatitis prevalence and identify risk factors for hepatitis infection among the donor population. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective data analysis in five government hospitals. We collected HBV and HCV screening results, donor demographics, and donation type (family replacement or voluntary donor; first-time or repeat). Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to determine associations between infections and socio-demographic factors. RESULTS: The number of donors screened was 29,713. The overall prevalence was: 10.8% (3200) for HBV and 1.2% (357) for HCV. HBV infection was most strongly associated with male sex (p: <0.0001) and younger age (p: <0.0004 for the 22-27 age group). Both HBV and HCV infection were higher in certain locations. CONCLUSION: Our findings stress the presence of viral hepatitis infection throughout the country and the need to invest in safe blood services, vaccination and treatment of viral hepatitis at the national level.

Indirect rule redux: the political economy of diamond mining and its relation to the Ebola outbreak in Kono District, Sierra Leone.

This article explores the relationship between the 2014-2016 Ebola outbreak and the political economy of diamond mining in Kono District, Sierra Leone. The authors argue that foreign companies have recycled colonial strategies of indirect rule to facilitate the illicit flow of resources out of Sierra Leone. Drawing on field research conducted during the outbreak and in its aftermath, they show how this 'indirect rule redux' undermines democratic governance and the development of revenue-generation institutions. Finally, they consider the linkages between indirect rule and the Ebola outbreak, vis-à-vis the consequences of the region's intentionally underdeveloped health care infrastructure and the scaffolding of outbreak containment onto the paramount chieftaincy system.

Cet article explore la relation entre l'épidémie d'Ebola de 2014­2016 et la politique économique de l'extraction de diamants dans le district de Kono, au Sierra Leone. Les auteurs avancent que des entreprises étrangères ont recyclé les stratégies coloniales de la « règle indirecte ¼ afin de faciliter le flux de ressources hors du Sierra Leone. S'appuyant sur de la recherche de terrain conduite pendant l'épidémie et après, il est démontré comment ce retour de la « règle indirecte ¼ sape la gouvernance démocratique et le développement d'institutions qui génèrent du revenu. Enfin, cet article s'intéresse aux liens entre la « règle indirecte ¼ et l'épidémie d'Ebola, vis-à-vis des conséquences de l'infrastructure de soins de santé intentionnellement sous-développée dans la région et les tentatives de confinement de l'épidémie pour le système essentiel de chefferie.

Strengthening Health Systems While Responding to a Health Crisis: Lessons Learned by a Nongovernmental Organization During the Ebola Virus Disease Epidemic in Sierra Leone.

An epidemic of Ebola virus disease (EVD) beginning in 2013 has claimed an estimated 11 310 lives in West Africa. As the EVD epidemic subsides, it is important for all who participated in the emergency Ebola response to reflect on strengths and weaknesses of the response. Such reflections should take into account perspectives not usually included in peer-reviewed publications and after-action reports, including those from the public sector, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), survivors of Ebola, and Ebola-affected households and communities. In this article, we first describe how the international NGO Partners In Health (PIH) partnered with the Government of Sierra Leone and Wellbody Alliance (a local NGO) to respond to the EVD epidemic in 4 of the country's most Ebola-affected districts. We then describe how, in the aftermath of the epidemic, PIH is partnering with the public sector to strengthen the health system and resume delivery of regular health services. PIH's experience in Sierra Leone is one of multiple partnerships with different stakeholders. It is also one of rapid deployment of expatriate clinicians and logistics personnel in health facilities largely deprived of health professionals, medical supplies, and physical infrastructure required to deliver health services effectively and safely. Lessons learned by PIH and its partners in Sierra Leone can contribute to the ongoing discussion within the international community on how to ensure emergency preparedness and build resilient health systems in settings without either.

Biosocial Approaches to the 2013-2016 Ebola Pandemic.

Despite more than 25 documented outbreaks of Ebola since 1976, our understanding of the disease is limited, in particular the social, political, ecological, and economic forces that promote (or limit) its spread. In the following study, we seek to provide new ways of understanding the 2013-2016 Ebola pandemic. We use the term, 'pandemic,' instead of 'epidemic,' so as not to elide the global forces that shape every localized outbreak of infectious disease. By situating life histories via a biosocial approach, the forces promoting or retarding Ebola transmission come into sharper focus. We conclude that biomedical and culturalist claims of causality have helped obscure the role of human rights failings (colonial legacies, structural adjustment, exploitative mining companies, enabled civil war, rural poverty, and the near absence of quality health care, to name but a few) in the genesis of the 2013-16 pandemic. From early 20th century smallpox and influenza outbreaks to 21st century Ebola, transnational relations of inequality continue to be embodied as viral disease in West Africa, resulting in the preventable deaths of hundreds of thousands of people.