Altered Adipocyte Cell Size Distribution Prior to Weight Loss in the R6/2 Model of Huntington's Disease.

BACKGROUND: Metabolic alterations contribute to disease onset and prognosis of Huntington's disease (HD). Weight loss in the R6/2 mouse model of HD is a consistent feature, with onset in mid-to-late stage of disease. OBJECTIVE: In the present study, we aimed to investigate molecular and functional changes in white adipose tissue (WAT) that occur at weight loss in R6/2 mice. We further elaborated on the effect of leptin-deficiency and early obesity in R6/2 mice. METHODS: We performed analyses at 12 weeks of age; a time point that coincides with the start of weight loss in our R6/2 mouse colony. Gonadal (visceral) and inguinal (subcutaneous) WAT depot weights were monitored, as well as adipocyte size distribution. Response to isoprenaline-stimulated glycerol release and insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in adipocytes from gonadal WAT was assessed. RESULTS: In R6/2 mice, WAT depot weights were comparable to wildtype (WT) mice, and the response to insulin and isoprenaline in gonadal adipocytes was unaltered. Leptin-deficient R6/2 mice exhibited distinct changes compared to leptin-deficient WT mice. At 12 weeks, female leptin-deficient R6/2 mice had reduced body weight accompanied by an increased proportion of smaller adipocytes, while in contrast; male mice displayed a shift towards larger adipocyte sizes without a significant body weight reduction at this timepoint. CONCLUSIONS: We here show that there are early sex-specific changes in adipocyte cell size distribution in WAT of R6/2 mice and leptin-deficient R6/2 mice.

Microarray profiling of hypothalamic gene expression changes in Huntington's disease mouse models.

Structural changes and neuropathology in the hypothalamus have been suggested to contribute to the non-motor manifestations of Huntington's disease (HD), a neurodegenerative disorder caused by an expanded cytosine-adenine-guanine (CAG) repeat in the huntingtin (HTT) gene. In this study, we investigated whether hypothalamic HTT expression causes transcriptional changes. Hypothalamic RNA was isolated from two different HD mouse models and their littermate controls; BACHD mice with ubiquitous expression of full-length mutant HTT (mHTT) and wild-type mice with targeted hypothalamic overexpression of either wild-type HTT (wtHTT) or mHTT fragments. The mHTT and wtHTT groups showed the highest number of differentially expressed genes compared to the BACHD mouse model. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) with leading-edge analysis showed that suppressed sterol- and cholesterol metabolism were shared between hypothalamic wtHTT and mHTT overexpression. Most distinctive for mHTT overexpression was the suppression of neuroendocrine networks, in which qRT-PCR validation confirmed significant downregulation of neuropeptides with roles in feeding behavior; hypocretin neuropeptide precursor (Hcrt), tachykinin receptor 3 (Tacr3), cocaine and amphetamine-regulated transcript (Cart) and catecholamine-related biological processes; dopa decarboxylase (Ddc), histidine decarboxylase (Hdc), tyrosine hydroxylase (Th), and vasoactive intestinal peptide (Vip). In BACHD mice, few hypothalamic genes were differentially expressed compared to age-matched WT controls. However, GSEA indicated an enrichment of inflammatory- and gonadotropin-related processes at 10 months. In conclusion, we show that both wtHTT and mHTT overexpression change hypothalamic transcriptome profile, specifically mHTT, altering neuroendocrine circuits. In contrast, the ubiquitous expression of full-length mHTT in the BACHD hypothalamus moderately affects the transcriptomic profile.

Hypothalamic expression of huntingtin causes distinct metabolic changes in Huntington's disease mice.

OBJECTIVE: In Huntington's disease (HD), the disease-causing huntingtin (HTT) protein is ubiquitously expressed and causes both central and peripheral pathology. In clinical HD, a higher body mass index has been associated with slower disease progression, indicating the role of metabolic changes in disease pathogenesis. Underlying mechanisms of metabolic changes in HD remain poorly understood, but recent studies suggest the involvement of hypothalamic dysfunction. The present study aimed to investigate whether modulation of hypothalamic HTT levels would affect metabolic phenotype and disease features in HD using mouse models. METHODS: We used the R6/2 and BACHD mouse models that express different lengths of mutant HTT to develop lean- and obese phenotypes, respectively. We utilized adeno-associated viral vectors to overexpress either mutant or wild-type HTT in the hypothalamus of R6/2, BACHD, and their wild-type littermates. The metabolic phenotype was assessed by body weight measurements over time and body composition analysis using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry at the endpoint. R6/2 mice were further characterized using behavioral analyses, including rotarod, nesting-, and hindlimb clasping tests during early- and late-time points of disease progression. Finally, gene expression analysis was performed in R6/2 mice and wild-type littermates in order to assess transcriptional changes in the hypothalamus and adipose tissue. RESULTS: Hypothalamic overexpression of mutant HTT induced significant gender-affected body weight gain in all models, including wild-type mice. In R6/2 females, early weight gain shifted to weight loss during the corresponding late stage of disease despite increased fat accumulation. Body weight changes were accompanied by behavioral alterations. During the period of early weight gain, R6/2 mice displayed a comparable locomotor capacity to wild-type mice. When assessing behavior just prior to weight loss onset in R6/2 mice, decreased locomotor performance was observed in R6/2 females with hypothalamic overexpression of mutant HTT. Transcriptional downregulation of beta-3 adrenergic receptor (B3AR), adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARγ) in gonadal white adipose tissue was accompanied by distinct alterations in hypothalamic gene expression profiles in R6/2 females after mutant HTT overexpression. No significant effect on metabolic phenotype in R6/2 was seen in response to wild-type HTT overexpression. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, our findings provide further support for the role of HTT in metabolic control via hypothalamic neurocircuits. Understanding the specific central neurocircuits and their peripheral link underlying metabolic imbalance in HD may open up avenues for novel therapeutic interventions.

Glutathione S-Transferase Alpha 4 Prevents Dopamine Neurodegeneration in a Rat Alpha-Synuclein Model of Parkinson's Disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common, progressive neurodegenerative disease, which typically presents itself with a range of motor symptoms, like resting tremor, bradykinesia, and rigidity, but also non-motor symptoms such as fatigue, constipation, and sleep disturbance. Neuropathologically, PD is characterized by loss of dopaminergic cells in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and Lewy bodies, neuronal inclusions containing α-synuclein (α-syn). Mutations and copy number variations of SNCA, the gene encoding α-syn, are linked to familial PD and common SNCA gene variants are associated to idiopathic PD. Large-scale genome-wide association studies have identified risk variants across another 40 loci associated to idiopathic PD. These risk variants do not, however, explain all the genetic contribution to idiopathic PD. The rat Vra1 locus has been linked to neuroprotection after nerve- and brain injury in rats. Vra1 includes the glutathione S-transferase alpha 4 (Gsta4) gene, which encodes a protein involved in clearing lipid peroxidation by-products. The DA.VRA1 congenic rat strain, carrying PVG alleles in Vra1 on a DA strain background, was recently reported to express higher levels of Gsta4 transcripts and to display partial neuroprotection of SNpc dopaminergic neurons in a 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) induced model for PD. Since α-syn expression increases the risk for PD in a dose-dependent manner, we assessed the neuroprotective effects of Vra1 in an α-syn-induced PD model. Human wild-type α-syn was overexpressed by unilateral injections of the rAAV6-α-syn vector in the SNpc of DA and DA.VRA1 congenic rats. Gsta4 gene expression levels were significantly higher in the striatum and midbrain of DA.VRA1 compared to DA rats at 3 weeks post surgery, in both the ipsilateral and contralateral sides. At 8 weeks post surgery, DA.VRA1 rats suffered significantly lower fiber loss in the striatum and lower loss of dopaminergic neurons in the SNpc compared to DA. Immunofluorescent stainings showed co-expression of Gsta4 with Gfap at 8 weeks suggesting that astrocytic expression of Gsta4 underlies Vra1-mediated neuroprotection to α-syn induced pathology. This is the second PD model in which Vra1 is linked to protection of the nigrostriatal pathway, solidifying Gsta4 as a potential therapeutic target in PD.