New and Interesting Fungi. 5.

Nine new genera, 17 new species, nine new combinations, seven epitypes, three lectotypes, one neotype, and 14 interesting new host and / or geographical records are introduced in this study. New genera: Neobarrmaelia (based on Neobarrmaelia hyphaenes), Neobryochiton (based on Neobryochiton narthecii), Neocamarographium (based on Neocamarographium carpini), Nothocladosporium (based on Nothocladosporium syzygii), Nothopseudocercospora (based on Nothopseudocercospora dictamni), Paracamarographium (based on Paracamarographium koreanum), Pseudohormonema (based on Pseudohormonema sordidus), Quasiphoma (based on Quasiphoma hyphaenes), Rapidomyces (based on Rapidomyces narthecii). New species: Ascocorticium sorbicola (on leaves of Sorbus aucuparia, Belgium), Dactylaria retrophylli (on leaves of Retrophyllum rospigliosii, Colombia), Dactylellina miltoniae (on twigs of Miltonia clowesii, Colombia), Exophiala eucalyptigena (on dead leaves of Eucalyptus viminalis subsp. viminalis supporting Idolothrips spectrum, Australia), Idriellomyces syzygii (on leaves of Syzygium chordatum, South Africa), Microcera lichenicola (on Parmelia sulcata, Netherlands), Neobarrmaelia hyphaenes (on leaves of Hyphaene sp., South Africa), Neobryochiton narthecii (on dead leaves of Narthecium ossifragum, Netherlands), Niesslia pseudoexilis (on dead leaf of Quercus petraea, Serbia), Nothocladosporium syzygii (on leaves of Syzygium chordatum, South Africa), Nothotrimmatostroma corymbiae (on leaves of Corymbia henryi, South Africa), Phaeosphaeria hyphaenes (on leaves of Hyphaene sp., South Africa), Pseudohormonema sordidus (on a from human pacemaker, USA), Quasiphoma hyphaenes (on leaves of Hyphaene sp., South Africa), Rapidomyces narthecii (on dead leaves of Narthecium ossifragum, Netherlands), Reticulascus parahennebertii (on dead culm of Juncus inflexus, Netherlands), Scytalidium philadelphianum (from compressed air in a factory, USA). New combinations: Neobarrmaelia serenoae, Nothopseudocercospora dictamni, Dothiora viticola, Floricola sulcata, Neocamarographium carpini, Paracamarographium koreanum, Rhexocercosporidium bellocense, Russula lilacina. Epitypes: Elsinoe corni (on leaves of Cornus florida, USA), Leptopeltis litigiosa (on dead leaf fronds of Pteridium aquilinum, Netherlands), Nothopseudocercospora dictamni (on living leaves of Dictamnus albus, Russia), Ramularia arvensis (on leaves of Potentilla reptans, Netherlands), Rhexocercosporidium bellocense (on leaves of Verbascum sp., Germany), Rhopographus filicinus (on dead leaf fronds of Pteridium aquilinum, Netherlands), Septoria robiniae (on leaves of Robinia pseudoacacia, Belgium). Lectotypes: Leptopeltis litigiosa (on Pteridium aquilinum, France), Rhopographus filicinus (on dead leaf fronds of Pteridium aquilinum, Netherlands), Septoria robiniae (on leaves of Robinia pseudoacacia, Belgium). Neotype: Camarographium stephensii (on dead leaf fronds of Pteridium aquilinum, Netherlands). Citation: Crous PW, Begoude BAD, Boers J, Braun U, Declercq B, Dijksterhuis J, Elliott TF, Garay-Rodriguez GA, Jurjevic Z, Kruse J, Linde CC, Loyd A, Mound L, Osieck ER, Rivera-Vargas LI, Quimbita AM, Rodas CA, Roux J, Schumacher RK, Starink-Willemse M, Thangavel R, Trappe JM, van Iperen AL, Van Steenwinkel C, Wells A, Wingfield MJ, Yilmaz N, Groenewald JZ (2022) New and Interesting Fungi. 5. Fungal Systematics and Evolution 10: 19-90. doi: 10.3114/fuse.2022.10.02.

New and Interesting Fungi. 4.

An order, family and genus are validated, seven new genera, 35 new species, two new combinations, two epitypes, two lectotypes, and 17 interesting new host and / or geographical records are introduced in this study. Validated order, family and genus: Superstratomycetales and Superstratomycetaceae (based on Superstratomyces ). New genera: Haudseptoria (based on Haudseptoria typhae); Hogelandia (based on Hogelandia lambearum); Neoscirrhia (based on Neoscirrhia osmundae); Nothoanungitopsis (based on Nothoanungitopsis urophyllae); Nothomicrosphaeropsis (based on Nothomicrosphaeropsis welwitschiae); Populomyces (based on Populomyces zwinianus); Pseudoacrospermum (based on Pseudoacrospermum goniomae). New species: Apiospora sasae on dead culms of Sasa veitchii (Netherlands); Apiospora stipae on dead culms of Stipa gigantea (Spain); Bagadiella eucalyptorum on leaves of Eucalyptus sp. (Australia); Calonectria singaporensis from submerged leaf litter (Singapore); Castanediella neomalaysiana on leaves of Eucalyptus sp. (Malaysia); Colletotrichum pleopeltidis on leaves of Pleopeltis sp. (South Africa); Coniochaeta deborreae from soil (Netherlands); Diaporthe durionigena on branches of Durio zibethinus (Vietnam); Floricola juncicola on dead culm of Juncus sp. (France); Haudseptoria typhae on leaf sheath of Typha sp. (Germany); Hogelandia lambearum from soil (Netherlands); Lomentospora valparaisensis from soil (Chile); Neofusicoccum mystacidii on dead stems of Mystacidium capense (South Africa); Neomycosphaerella guibourtiae on leaves of Guibourtia sp. (Angola); Niesslia neoexosporioides on dead leaves of Carex paniculata (Germany); Nothoanungitopsis urophyllae on seed capsules of Eucalyptus urophylla (South Africa); Nothomicrosphaeropsis welwitschiae on dead leaves of Welwitschia mirabilis (Namibia); Paracremonium bendijkiorum from soil (Netherlands); Paraphoma ledniceana on dead wood of Buxus sempervirens (Czech Republic); Paraphoma salicis on leaves of Salix cf. alba (Ukraine); Parasarocladium wereldwijsianum from soil (Netherlands); Peziza ligni on masonry and plastering (France); Phyllosticta phoenicis on leaves of Phoenix reclinata (South Africa); Plectosphaerella slobbergiarum from soil (Netherlands); Populomyces zwinianus from soil (Netherlands); Pseudoacrospermum goniomae on leaves of Gonioma kamassi (South Africa); Pseudopyricularia festucae on leaves of Festuca californica (USA); Sarocladium sasijaorum from soil (Netherlands); Sporothrix hypoxyli in sporocarp of Hypoxylon petriniae on Fraxinus wood (Netherlands); Superstratomyces albomucosus on Pycnanthus angolensis (Netherlands); Superstratomyces atroviridis on Pinus sylvestris (Netherlands); Superstratomyces flavomucosus on leaf of Hakea multilinearis (Australia); Superstratomyces tardicrescens from human eye specimen (USA); Taeniolella platani on twig of Platanus hispanica (Germany), and Tympanis pini on twigs of Pinus sylvestris (Spain). Citation: Crous PW, Hernández-Restrepo M, Schumacher RK, Cowan DA, Maggs-Kölling G, Marais E, Wingfield MJ, Yilmaz N, Adan OCG, Akulov A, Álvarez Duarte E, Berraf-Tebbal A, Bulgakov TS, Carnegie AJ, de Beer ZW, Decock C, Dijksterhuis J, Duong TA, Eichmeier A, Hien LT, Houbraken JAMP, Khanh TN, Liem NV, Lombard L, Lutzoni FM, Miadlikowska JM, Nel WJ, Pascoe IG, Roets F, Roux J, Samson RA, Shen M, Spetik M, Thangavel R, Thanh HM, Thao LD, van Nieuwenhuijzen EJ, Zhang JQ, Zhang Y, Zhao LL, Groenewald JZ (2021). New and Interesting Fungi. 4. Fungal Systematics and Evolution 7: 255-343. doi: 10.3114/fuse.2021.07.13.

Cladosporium species in indoor environments.

As part of a worldwide survey of the indoor mycobiota about 520 new Cladosporium isolates from indoor environments mainly collected in China, Europe, New Zealand, North America and South Africa were investigated by using a polyphasic approach to determine their species identity. All Cladosporium species occurring in indoor environments are fully described and illustrated. Fourty-six Cladosporium species are treated of which 16 species are introduced as new. A key for the most common Cladosporium species isolated from indoor environments is provided. Cladosporium halotolerans proved to be the most frequently isolated Cladosporium species indoors.

Aspergillus niger mutants affected in conidial pigmentation do not have an increased susceptibility to water stress during growth at low water activity.

Aspergillus niger forms conidia that contain melanin in their cell wall. This black pigment has been shown to protect fungi against UV radiation, and experimental evidence has indicated that it also protects against drought and high salt concentrations. In this study, growth of A. niger was evaluated at low water activity (aw ) and after changes in relative humidity (RH). In addition, deletion strains of A. niger affected in the melanin synthesis pathway were compared. Germination of conidia of the wild-type and deletion strains was observed at 0·81 aw and germ tubes continued growth at aw  ≥ 0·83. Conidia and microcolonies of the different strains were incubated for 1 week at lowered RH (33-84%). Conidia of all strains germinated and formed colonies after exposure to RH ≥33% when transferred back to malt extract medium at aw 0·98. Conidia germinated and showed limited growth at 84% RH. Microcolonies of all strains did not survive an incubation of 1 week at RH ≤75%, but continued growth after exposure to 84% RH. Together, this is the first genetic evidence that melanin does not play a role during germination and radial extension of fungi at low water conditions. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Aspergillus niger, a cosmopolitan fungus with melanized conidia, is used here as a model system for fungal growth at low water activity (aw ) and humidity dynamics. From this study it becomes clear that melanin, contrary to what has been suggested before, is not a key factor in survival and growth during situations that mimic indoor conditions. Indoor fungal growth can lead to cosmetic damage to building materials and health problems. This knowledge makes clear that novel ways to limit indoor fungal growth have to be based on interference with other cellular traits of fungi.

Growth of indoor fungi on gypsum.

AIMS: To have a better understanding of fungal growth on gypsum building materials to prevent indoor fungal growth. METHODS AND RESULTS: Gypsum is acquired by mining or as a by-product of flue-gas desulphurization or treatment of phosphate ore for the production of fertilizer. Natural gypsum, flue-gas gypsum and phosphogypsum therefore have different mineral compositions. Here, growth of fungi on these types of gypsum was assessed. Conidia of the indoor fungi Aspergillus niger, Cladosporium halotolerans and Penicillium rubens were inoculated and observed using microscopic techniques including low-temperature scanning electron microscopy. Elemental analysis of gypsum was done using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and segmented flow analysis. Moisture content of the gypsum was determined using a dynamic vapour sorption apparatus. Aspergillus niger, C. halotolerans and P. rubens hardly germinated on natural gypsum and flue-gas gypsum. The latter two fungi did show germination, outgrowth, and conidiation on phosphogypsum, while A. niger hardly germinated on this substrate. Other experiments show that C. halotolerans and P. rubens can develop in pure water, but A. niger does not. CONCLUSIONS: The observations show that the lack of germination of three indoor fungi is explained by the low amount of phosphor in natural, flue-gas and laboratory-grade gypsum. Additionally, C. halotolerans and P. rubens can develop in pure water, while conidia of A. niger do not show any germination, which is explained by the need for organic molecules of this species to induce germination. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Indoor fungal growth is a potential threat to human health and causes damage to building materials. This study possibly helps in the application of the right type of gypsum in buildings.

A taxonomic review of Penicillium species producing conidiophores with solitary phialides, classified in section Torulomyces.

The genus Torulomyces was characterised by species that typically have conidiophores consisting of solitary phialides that produce long chains of conidia connected by disjunctors. Based on the phylogenetic position of P. lagena (generic ex-neotype), the genus and its seven species were transferred to Penicillium and classified in sect. Torulomyces along with P. cryptum and P. lassenii. The aim of this study was to review the species currently classified in sect. Torulomyces using morphology and phylogenies of the ITS, BenA, CaM and RPB2 regions. Based on our results, we accept 16 species in sect. Torulomyces, including 12 new species described as P. aeris, P. austricola, P. cantabricum, P. catalonicum, P. oregonense, P. marthae-christenseniae, P. riverlandense, P. tubakianum, P. variratense, P. williamettense, P. wisconsinense and P. wollemiicola. In addition, we reclassify P. laeve and P. ovatum in sect. Exilicaulis and correct the typification of P. lagena. We provide descriptions and notes on the identification of the species.

Aspergillus section Nidulantes (formerly Emericella): Polyphasic taxonomy, chemistry and biology.

Aspergillus section Nidulantes includes species with striking morphological characters, such as biseriate conidiophores with brown-pigmented stipes, and if present, the production of ascomata embedded in masses of Hülle cells with often reddish brown ascospores. The majority of species in this section have a sexual state, which were named Emericella in the dual name nomenclature system. In the present study, strains belonging to subgenus Nidulantes were subjected to multilocus molecular phylogenetic analyses using internal transcribed spacer region (ITS), partial ß-tubulin (BenA), calmodulin (CaM) and RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (RPB2) sequences. Nine sections are accepted in subgenus Nidulantes including the new section Cavernicolus. A polyphasic approach using morphological characters, extrolites, physiological characters and phylogeny was applied to investigate the taxonomy of section Nidulantes. Based on this approach, section Nidulantes is subdivided in seven clades and 65 species, and 10 species are described here as new. Morphological characters including colour, shape, size, and ornamentation of ascospores, shape and size of conidia and vesicles, growth temperatures are important for identifying species. Many species of section Nidulantes produce the carcinogenic mycotoxin sterigmatocystin. The most important mycotoxins in Aspergillus section Nidulantes are aflatoxins, sterigmatocystin, emestrin, fumitremorgins, asteltoxins, and paxillin while other extrolites are useful drugs or drug lead candidates such as echinocandins, mulundocandins, calbistrins, varitriols, variecolins and terrain. Aflatoxin B1 is produced by four species: A. astellatus, A. miraensis, A. olivicola, and A. venezuelensis.

Hydrophilins in the filamentous fungus Neosartorya fischeri (Aspergillus fischeri) have protective activity against several types of microbial water stress.

Hydrophilins are proteins that occur in all domains of life and protect cells and organisms against drought and other stresses. They include most of the late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins and the heat shock protein (HSP) Hsp12. Here, the role of a predicted LEA-like protein (LeamA) and two Hsp12 proteins (Hsp12A and Hsp12B) of Neosartorya fischeri was studied. This filamentous fungus forms ascospores that belong to the most stress-resistant eukaryotic cells described to date. Heterologous expression of LeamA, Hsp12A and Hsp12B resulted in increased tolerance against salt and osmotic stress in Escherichia coli. These proteins were also shown to protect lactate dehydrogenase against dry heat and freeze-thaw cycles in vitro. Deletion of leamA caused diminished viability of sexual ascospores after drought and heat. This is the first report on functionality of Hsp12 and putative LeamA proteins derived from filamentous fungi, and their possible role in N. fischeri ascospore resistance against desiccation, high temperature and osmotic stress is discussed.

Common but different: The expanding realm of Cladosporium.

The genus Cladosporium (Cladosporiaceae, Dothideomycetes), which represents one of the largest genera of dematiaceous hyphomycetes, has been intensively investigated during the past decade. In the process, three major species complexes (C. cladosporioides, C. herbarum and C. sphaerospermum) were resolved based on morphology and DNA phylogeny, and a monographic revision of the genus (s. lat.) published reflecting the current taxonomic status quo. In the present study a further 19 new species are described based on phylogenetic characters (nuclear ribosomal RNA gene operon, including the internal transcribed spacer regions ITS1 and ITS2, as well as partial actin and translation elongation factor 1-α gene sequences) and morphological differences. For a selection of the species with ornamented conidia, scanning electron microscopic photos were prepared to illustrate the different types of surface ornamentation. Surprisingly, during this study Cladosporium ramotenellum was found to be a quite common saprobic species, being widely distributed and occurring on various substrates. Therefore, an emended species description is provided. Furthermore, the host range and distribution data for several previously described species are also expanded.

Mannitol is essential for the development of stress-resistant ascospores in Neosartorya fischeri (Aspergillus fischeri).

The polyol mannitol is one of the main compatible solutes in Neosartorya fischeri and accumulates in conidia and ascospores. Here, it is shown that biosynthesis of mannitol in N. fischeri mainly depends on mannitol 1-phosphate dehydrogenase (MpdA). Reporter studies and qPCR analysis demonstrated that mpdA is moderately expressed in vegetative hyphae and conidiophores, while it is highly expressed during development of ascospores. Deletion of mpdA reduced mannitol in whole cultures as much as 85% of the wild type, while trehalose levels had increased more than 4-fold. Decreased mannitol accumulation had no effect on mycelial growth irrespective of heat- or oxidative stress. Notably, conidia of the ΔmpdA strain had higher mannitol and lower trehalose levels. They were more sensitive to heat stress. The most distinct phenotype of mpdA deletion was the absence of full development of ascospores. Formation of cleistothecia, and asci was not affected. The ascus cell wall, however, did not dissolve and asci contained incompletely formed or aborted ascospores. Addition of the Mpd inhibitor nitrophenide to the wild type strain also resulted in disturbed ascospore formation. Taken together, these results show that mannitol has a role in sexual development of N. fischeri and in stress resistance of conidia.

WNT/Frizzled signalling: receptor-ligand selectivity with focus on FZD-G protein signalling and its physiological relevance: IUPHAR Review 3.

The wingless/int1 (WNT)/Frizzled (FZD) signalling pathway controls numerous cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, cell-fate decisions, migration and plays a crucial role during embryonic development. Nineteen mammalian WNTs can bind to 10 FZDs thereby activating different downstream pathways such as WNT/ß-catenin, WNT/planar cell polarity and WNT/Ca(2+) . However, the mechanisms of signalling specification and the involvement of heterotrimeric G proteins are still unclear. Disturbances in the pathways can lead to various diseases ranging from cancer, inflammatory diseases to metabolic and neurological disorders. Due to the presence of seven-transmembrane segments, evidence for coupling between FZDs and G proteins and substantial structural differences in class A, B or C GPCRs, FZDs were grouped separately in the IUPHAR GPCR database as the class FZD within the superfamily of GPCRs. Recently, important progress has been made pointing to a direct activation of G proteins after WNT stimulation. WNT/FZD and G protein coupling remain to be fully explored, although the basic observation supporting the nature of FZDs as GPCRs is compelling. Because the involvement of different (i) WNTs; (ii) FZDs; and (iii) intracellular binding partners could selectively affect signalling specification, in this review we present the current understanding of receptor/ligand selectivity of FZDs and WNTs. We pinpoint what is known about signalling specification and the physiological relevance of these interactions with special emphasis on FZD-G protein interactions.

Novel Curvularia species from clinical specimens.

The fungal genus Curvularia includes numerous plant pathogens and some emerging opportunistic pathogens of humans. In a previous study we used morphology and sequences of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) and the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (gpd) gene to identify species within a set of 99 clinical Curvularia isolates from the USA. Seventy-two isolates could be identified while the remaining 27 isolates belonged in three unclassified clades that were tentatively labelled Curvularia sp. I, II and III. In the present study, we further assess the taxonomic placement of these isolates using sequences of ITS, gpd, the large subunit rDNA, and the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II. DNA sequence comparisons with a set of 87 isolates representing 33 Curvularia spp. and members of the closely-related genera Bipolaris and Exserohilum revealed that Curvularia sp. I, II and III represent novel lineages in Curvularia. These lineages are morphologically different from the currently accepted species. In the phylogenetic tree, Curvularia sp. I and sp. III were each split into two distinct lineages. Morphology and phylogeny supported the proposal of five new species, to be named C. americana, C. chlamydospora, C. hominis, C. muehlenbeckiae and C. pseudolunata. The concatenated 4-locus phylogeny revealed the existence of six clades in Curvularia, which are associated with particular morphological features. They were named after representative species, namely americana, eragrostidis, hominis, lunata, spicifera and trifolii.

Heterogeneity in liquid shaken cultures of Aspergillus niger inoculated with melanised conidia or conidia of pigmentation mutants.

Black pigmented conidia of Aspergillus niger give rise to micro-colonies when incubated in liquid shaken medium. These micro-colonies are heterogeneous with respect to gene expression and size. We here studied the biophysical properties of the conidia of a control strain and of strains in which the fwnA, olvA or brnA gene is inactivated. These strains form fawn-, olive-, and brown-coloured conidia, respectively. The ΔolvA strain produced larger conidia (3.8 µm) when compared to the other strains (3.2-3.3 µm). Moreover, the conidia of the ΔolvA strain were highly hydrophilic, whereas those of the other strains were hydrophobic. The zeta potential of the ΔolvA conidia in medium was also more negative when compared to the control strain. This was accompanied by the near absence of a rodlet layer of hydrophobins. Using the Complex Object Parametric Analyzer and Sorter it was shown that the ratio of individual hyphae and micro-colonies in liquid shaken cultures of the deletion strains was lower when compared to the control strain. The average size of the micro-colonies of the control strain was also smaller (628 µm) than that of the deletion strains (790-858 µm). The size distribution of the micro-colonies of the ΔfwnA strain was normally distributed, while that of the other strains could be explained by assuming a population of small and a population of large micro-colonies. In the last set of experiments it was shown that relative expression levels of gpdA, and AmyR and XlnR regulated genes correlate in individual hyphae at the periphery of micro-colonies. This indicates the existence of transcriptionally and translationally highly active and lowly active hyphae as was previously shown in macro-colonies. However, the existence of distinct populations of hyphae with high and low transcriptional and translational activity seems to be less robust when compared to macro-colonies grown on solid medium.

Germination of conidia of Aspergillus niger is accompanied by major changes in RNA profiles.

The transcriptome of conidia of Aspergillus niger was analysed during the first 8 h of germination. Dormant conidia started to grow isotropically two h after inoculation in liquid medium. Isotropic growth changed to polarised growth after 6 h, which coincided with one round of mitosis. Dormant conidia contained transcripts from 4 626 genes. The number of genes with transcripts decreased to 3 557 after 2 h of germination, after which an increase was observed with 4 780 expressed genes 8 h after inoculation. The RNA composition of dormant conidia was substantially different than all the subsequent stages of germination. The correlation coefficient between the RNA profiles of 0 h and 8 h was 0.46. They were between 0.76-0.93 when profiles of 2, 4 and 6 h were compared with that of 8 h. Dormant conidia were characterised by high levels of transcripts of genes involved in the formation of protecting components such as trehalose, mannitol, protective proteins (e.g. heat shock proteins and catalase). Transcripts belonging to the Functional Gene Categories (FunCat) protein synthesis, cell cycle and DNA processing and respiration were over-represented in the up-regulated genes at 2 h, whereas metabolism and cell cycle and DNA processing were over-represented in the up-regulated genes at 4 h. At 6 h and 8 h no functional gene classes were over- or under-represented in the differentially expressed genes. Taken together, it is concluded that the transcriptome of conidia changes dramatically during the first two h and that initiation of protein synthesis and respiration are important during early stages of germination.

The effect of natamycin on the transcriptome of conidia of Aspergillus niger.

The impact of natamycin on Aspergillus niger was analysed during the first 8 h of germination of conidia. Polarisation, germ tube formation, and mitosis were inhibited in the presence of 3 and 10 µM of the anti-fungal compound, while at 10 µM also isotropic growth was affected. Natamycin did not have an effect on the decrease of microviscosity during germination and the concomitant reduction in mannitol and trehalose levels. However, it did abolish the increase of intracellular levels of glycerol and glucose during the 8 h period of germination.Natamycin hardly affected the changes that occur in the RNA profile during the first 2 h of germination. During this time period, genes related to transcription, protein synthesis, energy and cell cycle and DNA processing were particularly up-regulated. Differential expression of 280 and 2586 genes was observed when 8 h old germlings were compared with conidia that had been exposed to 3 µM and 10 µM natamycin, respectively. For instance, genes involved in ergosterol biosynthesis were down-regulated. On the other hand, genes involved in endocytosis and the metabolism of compatible solutes, and genes encoding protective proteins were up-regulated in natamycin treated conidia.

Development in Aspergillus.

The genus Aspergillus represents a diverse group of fungi that are among the most abundant fungi in the world. Germination of a spore can lead to a vegetative mycelium that colonizes a substrate. The hyphae within the mycelium are highly heterogeneous with respect to gene expression, growth, and secretion. Aspergilli can reproduce both asexually and sexually. To this end, conidiophores and ascocarps are produced that form conidia and ascospores, respectively. This review describes the molecular mechanisms underlying growth and development of Aspergillus.

Cytosolic streaming in vegetative mycelium and aerial structures of Aspergillus niger.

Aspergillus niger forms aerial hyphae and conidiophores after a period of vegetative growth. The hyphae within the mycelium of A. niger are divided by septa. The central pore in these septa allows for cytoplasmic streaming. Here, we studied inter- and intra-compartmental streaming of the reporter protein GFP in A. niger. Expression of the gene encoding nuclear targeted GFP from the gpdA or glaA promoter resulted in strong fluorescence of nuclei within the vegetative hyphae and weak fluorescence in nuclei within the aerial structures. These data and nuclear run on experiments showed that gpdA and glaA are higher expressed in the vegetative mycelium when compared to aerial hyphae, conidiophores and conidia. Notably, gpdA or glaA driven expression of the gene encoding cytosolic GFP resulted in strongly fluorescent vegetative hyphae and aerial structures. Apparently, GFP streams from vegetative hyphae into aerial structures. This was confirmed by monitoring fluorescence of photo-activatable GFP (PA-GFP). In contrast, PA-GFP did not stream from aerial structures to vegetative hyphae. Streaming of PA-GFP within vegetative hyphae or within aerial structures of A. niger occurred at a rate of 10-15 µm s(-1). Taken together, these results not only show that GFP streams from the vegetative mycelium to aerial structures but it also indicates that its encoding RNA is not streaming. Absence of RNA streaming would explain why distinct RNA profiles were found in aerial structures and the vegetative mycelium by nuclear run on analysis and micro-array analysis.

Five new Penicillium species in section Sclerotiora: a tribute to the Dutch Royal family.

Current literature accepts 17 species in Penicillium section Sclerotiora. Several produce colonies in bright yellow to orange colours and have monoverticillate conidiophores, apart from P. herquei, P. malachiteum and P. nodositatum, which are biverticillate. The focus of this paper is to refine the concepts of the species currently accepted in the section and introduce five new species, named after the Dutch Royal family as P. vanoranjei, P. maximae, P. amaliae, P. alexiae and P. arianeae. Penicillium vanoranjei produces orange (Dutch = oranje) colonies in culture, and is named after Willem-Alexander Claus George Ferdinand, 'Zijne Koninklijke Hoogheid de Prins van Oranje' (translated from Dutch as: 'His Royal Highness the Prince of Orange') and his family, to coincide with his coronation. We review the current taxonomic positions of P. lilacinoechinulatum and P. nodositatum, both currently considered to be synonyms of P. bilaiae. Sequence data generated in this study show that both species are phylogenetically distinct. Penicillium lilacinoechinulatum is closely related to P. amaliae sp. nov., whereas P. nodositatum does not belong to Penicillium sensu stricto. All species were compared morphologically and phylogenetically, based on ß-tubulin and calmodulin DNA data. A table summarising the morphological characters of all species is included, together with photomicrographs and recommended DNA markers for identification.

The Concise Guide to PHARMACOLOGY 2013/14: overview.

The Concise Guide to PHARMACOLOGY 2013/14 provides concise overviews of the key properties of over 2000 human drug targets with their pharmacology, plus links to an open access knowledgebase of drug targets and their ligands (www.guidetopharmacology.org), which provides more detailed views of target and ligand properties from the IUPHAR database. The full contents can be found at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.12444/full. This compilation of the major pharmacological targets is divided into seven areas of focus: G protein-coupled receptors, ligand-gated ion channels, ion channels, catalytic receptors, nuclear hormone receptors, transporters and enzymes. These are presented with nomenclature guidance and summary information on the best available pharmacological tools, alongside key references and suggestions for further reading. A new landscape format has easy to use tables comparing related targets. It is a condensed version of material contemporary to late 2013, which is presented in greater detail and constantly updated on the website www.guidetopharmacology.org, superseding data presented in previous Guides to Receptors & Channels. It is produced in conjunction with NC-IUPHAR and provides the official IUPHAR classification and nomenclature for human drug targets, where appropriate. It consolidates information previously curated and displayed separately in IUPHAR-DB and GRAC and provides a permanent, citable, point-in-time record that will survive database updates.

Production of an extracellular matrix as an isotropic growth phase of Penicillium rubens on gypsum.

Indoor mold represents an important environmental concern, but a fundamental knowledge of fungal growth stages is needed to limit indoor fungal proliferation on finishing materials used in buildings. The present study focused on the succession of germination stages of the common indoor fungus Penicillium rubens on a gypsum substrate. This substrate is used as a model system representing porous materials that are widely used in indoor environments. Imaging with cryo-scanning electron microscopy showed that the formation of an extracellular matrix (ECM) is a phase of the isotropic growth of P. rubens that is uniquely related to germinating conidia. Furthermore, the ECM is observed only when a dry-state inoculation of the surface is applied, i.e., applying conidia directly from a 7-day-old colony, mimicking airborne contamination of the surface. When inoculation is done by spraying an aqueous conidial suspension, no ECM is observed. Moreover, it is concluded that the formation of an ECM requires active processes in the fungal cell. The porosity of the substrate proved that the ECM substance has high-viscosity characteristics. The present results stress that studies of indoor fungal growth should consider the method of inoculation, knowing that the common aqueous suspension may obscure specific stages in the initial phases of germination.