Factors that influence the persistence of stimulation-induced aversion.

Brain stimulation reward in certain regions has been shown to produce analgesia to externally applied painful stimuli. In the present experiments, we studied how electrical self-stimulation of the dorsal raphe (DR) nucleus modifies the aversive effects of electrical stimulation of the nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis (Gi) or of the dorsal tegmentum (DTg). In the first study, the threshold for latency to escape aversive Gi stimulation was tracked before and after exposure to rewarding DR stimulation. Only a few sessions of DR self-stimulation were required to produce a complete and long-lasting inhibition of Gi aversion. In the second study, the aversion induced by DTg stimulation rapidly disappeared following a few test sessions at that site. Unlike our previous experience with Gi aversion that required either pairing with rewarding lateral hypothalamic (LH) or ventral tegmental area (VTA) pulses in order to increase the threshold for latency to escape Gi aversion, in this study, simply brief experience with rewarding DR stimulation in unpaired trials was sufficient to entirely suppress Gi-induced aversion. Even more surprising was the finding that unlike the Gi, aversion obtained from activation of the DTg does not persist, its threshold for escape quickly increases, and within a few sessions is no longer evident. One interpretation of these findings is that the aversion mechanisms associated with the Gi and DTg are differentially susceptible to analgesic processes.

Dynamic changes in cytochrome oxidase activity in the amygdala following lesions of rewarding sites in the lateral hypothalamus.

The aim of this study was to evaluate neural changes in oxidative metabolism in amygdaloid sub-nuclei following unilateral electrolytic lesions of lateral hypothalamic sites that supported brain stimulation reward. A histochemical analysis of cytochrome oxidase activity, comparing lesioned to non-lesioned sides in the amygdala, revealed a significant reduction of oxidative metabolism in the cortical nucleus and, to a lesser degree, in the adjacent piriform cortex; this effect was observed 2-4 weeks after the lesion, with complete recovery by the eighth week in the case of the cortical nucleus only. No particular pattern in cytochrome oxidase activity was detected in other amygdaloid sub-nuclei that were examined, including the basolateral and medial nucleus. Within both structures, the most pronounced decreases in metabolic activity were observed at roughly the same level, corresponding to the posterolateral and posteromedial levels of the cortical nucleus and just anterior to the amygdalopiriform transition. These results suggest that within the amygdaloid complex, the cortical sub-nuclei and possibly the neighbouring piriform cortex contribute more to modulating lateral hypothalamic self-stimulation than components of the central extended amygdala.

Interactions between rewarding lateral hypothalamic and aversive nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis stimulation.

The interaction between rewarding and aversive consequences of brain stimulation were assessed in two studies. In the first, the frequency threshold for 300 ms trains of combined lateral hypothalamic (LH) and nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis (Gi) stimulation, in which each LH pulse was followed 2 ms later by the Gi one, was determined for one month. Compared to the threshold for trains of single LH pulses, combined LH-Gi stimulation initially increased the frequency threshold; however, this effect reversed within one session and was subsequently maintained for the duration of the study. The aversion produced by Gi stimulation, as measured by latency to escape, was abolished following a single session of LH-Gi pairs. In the second study, a subset of animals received both presentations of combined pulses, LH followed by Gi, and the reverse; the interval between pulses was varied from 0.2 to 6.4 ms. The effectiveness of combined stimulation, determined by the ratio of LH frequency thresholds to that of the LH-Gi ranged from 0 to 50% across animals but the individual effectiveness functions within animals did not vary with different intervals. In addition, the order of presentation of pulses was of no consequence. Thus, not only did exposure to LH stimulation appear to obliterate Gi aversion, but the combination of LH and Gi pulses added to the rewarding effect produced by LH stimulation alone.

Survival of Listeria spp. on raw whole chickens cooked in microwave ovens.

The prevalence of microwave ovens in North American homes has increased dramatically within the last decade. Although microwave ovens are primarily used for reheating of foods, they are now more commonly being applied to the cooking of raw foods. Although cooking of raw foods, according to manufacturers' instructions targets an organoleptically acceptable end product, the process does not address the microbiological safety of the cooked food. Seventeen microwave ovens from various commercial suppliers were used to cook naturally contaminated whole raw broilers (< or = 1.8 kg) and roasters (> 1.8 kg) according to manufacturers' instructions. Temperature probes (six per chicken) were used to measure the temperature of chickens immediately after cooking and during the holding period. Of 81 Listeria-positive raw broilers and 93 raw roasters, 1 (1.2%) and 9 (9.7%), respectively, yielded viable Listeria spp. after microwave cooking. Of these, two were undercooked (visual inspection), one was over the maximum weight stipulated by the oven manufacturer and another one was over the maximum weight and undercooked. A significantly greater proportion of contaminated cooked birds was observed with roasters than with broilers, where for one of these contaminated roasters, the temperature at all six measured sites was > or = 87 degrees C. Most of the postcook Listeria-positive birds were associated with 2 of the 17 microwave ovens. Factors such as wattage, cavity size, and the presence or absence of a turntable seemingly did not play a significant role in the survival of Listeria spp. in microwave-cooked chicken. However, the general inability of microwave ovens to uniformly heat chicken carcasses was noted. In order to promote greater safety of microwave-cooked foods, general recommendations for consumers are provided.

Efficient Nondestructive Sampler for Carcasses and Other Surfaces.

Two versions of an electrically powered device (Rotorinser) to sample carcasses or other surfaces in situ for microbiological analysis and several different sampling protocols were evaluated against excision plus stomaching for ability to remove bacteria from pig skin and beef carcass tissue. Both devices sampled circular areas of approximately 14 cm2. Ten tissue samples were used for each set of conditions. Rotorinser bacterial removal efficiency was calculated as R/(R + S), where R is the Rotorinser count (CFU cm-2) and S is the count on stomached excised tissue after rotorinsing. Stomacher efficiencies were calculated as S1/(S1 + S2), where S1 is the first stomacher count of excised tissue and S2 is the count from a second stomaching. Both Rotorinsers were much better than traditional swabs. Rotorinser 1 gave removal efficiencies of 0.79 to 0.88 for beef, and 0.79 to 0.95 for pork. Prewetting surfaces for 5 min improved removal, but mixtures of enzymes did not. Rotorinser 2 applied with NaCl or NaCl-Tween 80 diluent for either 30 or 60 s was significantly better (0.93 and 0.98) than the stomacher (0.86) at removing aerobic mesophilic bacteria from pork skin. The Rotorinser causes negligible tissue damage and can be used on surfaces at any angle.

The bidirectional interaction between ventral tegmental rewarding and hindbrain aversive stimulation effects in the rat.

We used the curve-shift procedure in self-stimulating rats to examine the interaction of aversive and rewarding electrical stimuli in terms of duration and direction. The subjects were implanted with two moveable electrodes, one in a region supporting self-stimulation (the ventral tegmental area, VTA) and another in a region supporting escape (the nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis, Gi). The function relating self-stimulation rate to pulse frequency (RF function) was first obtained and then replicated in a condition where each VTA pulse was followed 0.2 or 2.0 ms later by a Gi pulse. The intensity of Gi pulses was set at a value previously found to elicit escape within less than 5 sec. The following observations were made: (1) rats self-stimulated consistently, despite the presence of Gi pulses, (2) the presence of Gi pulses shifted the RF function rightward (decreased the rewarding efficacy of VTA stimulation), with little effect on the maximum rate, (3) after 2 to 5 VTA-Gi self-stimulation sessions, the Gi pulses progressively lost their ability to shift the RF function, and (4) at the end of testing, escape was no longer detectable using Gi pulses alone. It was concluded that (1) the interaction between rewarding VTA and aversive Gi stimulation effects is bidirectional, thus suggesting the presence of algebraic summation; (2) the effect of Gi on VTA reward is transient whereas that of VTA on Gi aversion cumulates and eventually results in total abolition of Gi aversion. The present study represents the first account of cumulative and long-lasting suppression of aversion following brain stimulation in the rat.

Colony counting on hydrophobic grid-membrane filters.

A device to facilitate manual scoring of hydrophobic grid-membrane filters (HGMF) is described. Variations in scores were generally less than 2.5% between 41 analysts from six laboratories, who, using the apparatus, scored a set of five specimen HGMF in different ways, and there was good agreement between scores from positive and negative grid-cell counts by each analyst. A scoring procedure for use in routine microbiological analysis, suitable for HGMF at various degrees of saturation, is recommended.

Automated food microbiology: potential for the hydrophobic grid-membrane filter.

Bacterial counts obtained on hydrophobic grid-membrane filters were comparable to conventional plate counts for Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus in homogenates from a range of foods. The wide numerical operating range of the hydrophobic grid-membrane filters allowed sequential diluting to be reduced or even eliminated, making them attractive as components in automated systems of analysis. Food debris could be rinsed completely from the unincubated hydrophobic grid-membrane filter surface without affecting the subsequent count, thus eliminating the possibility of counting food particles, a common source of error in electronic counting systems.