Neutrophil extracellular traps formed during chemotherapy confer treatment resistance via TGF-ß activation.

Metastasis is the major cause of cancer death, and the development of therapy resistance is common. The tumor microenvironment can confer chemotherapy resistance (chemoresistance), but little is known about how specific host cells influence therapy outcome. We show that chemotherapy induces neutrophil recruitment and neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation, which reduces therapy response in mouse models of breast cancer lung metastasis. We reveal that chemotherapy-treated cancer cells secrete IL-1ß, which in turn triggers NET formation. Two NET-associated proteins are required to induce chemoresistance: integrin-αvß1, which traps latent TGF-ß, and matrix metalloproteinase 9, which cleaves and activates the trapped latent TGF-ß. TGF-ß activation causes cancer cells to undergo epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and correlates with chemoresistance. Our work demonstrates that NETs regulate the activities of neighboring cells by trapping and activating cytokines and suggests that chemoresistance in the metastatic setting can be reduced or prevented by targeting the IL-1ß-NET-TGF-ß axis.

Sympathetic axonal sprouting induces changes in macrophage populations and protects against pancreatic cancer.

Neuronal nerve processes in the tumor microenvironment were highlighted recently. However, the origin of intra-tumoral nerves remains poorly known, in part because of technical difficulties in tracing nerve fibers via conventional histological preparations. Here, we employ three-dimensional (3D) imaging of cleared tissues for a comprehensive analysis of sympathetic innervation in a murine model of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Our results support two independent, but coexisting, mechanisms: passive engulfment of pre-existing sympathetic nerves within tumors plus an active, localized sprouting of axon terminals into non-neoplastic lesions and tumor periphery. Ablation of the innervating sympathetic nerves increases tumor growth and spread. This effect is explained by the observation that sympathectomy increases intratumoral CD163+ macrophage numbers, which contribute to the worse outcome. Altogether, our findings provide insights into the mechanisms by which the sympathetic nervous system exerts cancer-protective properties in a mouse model of PDAC.

Pathogenic NR2F1 variants cause a developmental ocular phenotype recapitulated in a mutant mouse model.

Pathogenic NR2F1 variants cause a rare autosomal dominant neurodevelopmental disorder referred to as the Bosch-Boonstra-Schaaf Optic Atrophy Syndrome. Although visual loss is a prominent feature seen in affected individuals, the molecular and cellular mechanisms contributing to visual impairment are still poorly characterized. We conducted a deep phenotyping study on a cohort of 22 individuals carrying pathogenic NR2F1 variants to document the neurodevelopmental and ophthalmological manifestations, in particular the structural and functional changes within the retina and the optic nerve, which have not been detailed previously. The visual impairment became apparent in early childhood with small and/or tilted hypoplastic optic nerves observed in 10 cases. High-resolution optical coherence tomography imaging confirmed significant loss of retinal ganglion cells with thinning of the ganglion cell layer, consistent with electrophysiological evidence of retinal ganglion cells dysfunction. Interestingly, for those individuals with available longitudinal ophthalmological data, there was no significant deterioration in visual function during the period of follow-up. Diffusion tensor imaging tractography studies showed defective connections and disorganization of the extracortical visual pathways. To further investigate how pathogenic NR2F1 variants impact on retinal and optic nerve development, we took advantage of an Nr2f1 mutant mouse disease model. Abnormal retinogenesis in early stages of development was observed in Nr2f1 mutant mice with decreased retinal ganglion cell density and disruption of retinal ganglion cell axonal guidance from the neural retina into the optic stalk, accounting for the development of optic nerve hypoplasia. The mutant mice showed significantly reduced visual acuity based on electrophysiological parameters with marked conduction delay and decreased amplitude of the recordings in the superficial layers of the visual cortex. The clinical observations in our study cohort, supported by the mouse data, suggest an early neurodevelopmental origin for the retinal and optic nerve head defects caused by NR2F1 pathogenic variants, resulting in congenital vision loss that seems to be non-progressive. We propose NR2F1 as a major gene that orchestrates early retinal and optic nerve head development, playing a key role in the maturation of the visual system.

Non-cell autonomous control of precerebellar neuron migration by Slit and Robo proteins.

During development, precerebellar neurons migrate tangentially from the dorsal hindbrain to the floor plate. Their axons cross it but their cell bodies stop their ventral migration upon reaching the midline. It has previously been shown that Slit chemorepellents and their receptors, Robo1 and Robo2, might control the migration of precerebellar neurons in a repulsive manner. Here, we have used a conditional knockout strategy in mice to test this hypothesis. We show that the targeted inactivation of the expression of Robo1 and Robo2 receptors in precerebellar neurons does not perturb their migration and that they still stop at the midline. The selective ablation of the expression of all three Slit proteins in floor-plate cells has no effect on pontine neurons and only induces the migration of a small subset of inferior olivary neurons across the floor plate. Likewise, we show that the expression of Slit proteins in the facial nucleus is dispensable for pontine neuron migration. Together, these results show that Robo1 and Robo2 receptors act non-cell autonomously in migrating precerebellar neurons and that floor-plate signals, other than Slit proteins, must exist to prevent midline crossing.

Commissural neurons transgress the CNS/PNS boundary in absence of ventricular zone-derived netrin 1.

During the development of the central nervous system (CNS), only motor axons project into peripheral nerves. Little is known about the cellular and molecular mechanisms that control the development of a boundary at the CNS surface and prevent CNS neuron emigration from the neural tube. It has previously been shown that a subset of spinal cord commissural axons abnormally invades sensory nerves in Ntn1 hypomorphic embryos and Dcc knockouts. However, whether netrin 1 also plays a similar role in the brain is unknown. In the hindbrain, precerebellar neurons migrate tangentially under the pial surface, and their ventral migration is guided by netrin 1. Here, we show that pontine neurons and inferior olivary neurons, two types of precerebellar neurons, are not confined to the CNS in Ntn1 and Dcc mutant mice, but that they invade the trigeminal, auditory and vagus nerves. Using a Ntn1 conditional knockout, we show that netrin 1, which is released at the pial surface by ventricular zone progenitors is responsible for the CNS confinement of precerebellar neurons. We propose, that netrin 1 distribution sculpts the CNS boundary by keeping CNS neurons in netrin 1-rich domains.

Floor-plate-derived netrin-1 is dispensable for commissural axon guidance.

Netrin-1 is an evolutionarily conserved, secreted extracellular matrix protein involved in axon guidance at the central nervous system midline. Netrin-1 is expressed by cells localized at the central nervous system midline, such as those of the floor plate in vertebrate embryos. Growth cone turning assays and three-dimensional gel diffusion assays have shown that netrin-1 can attract commissural axons. Loss-of-function experiments further demonstrated that commissural axon extension to the midline is severely impaired in the absence of netrin-1 (refs 3, 7, 8, 9). Together, these data have long supported a model in which commissural axons are attracted by a netrin-1 gradient diffusing from the midline. Here we selectively ablate netrin-1 expression in floor-plate cells using a Ntn1 conditional knockout mouse line. We find that hindbrain and spinal cord commissural axons develop normally in the absence of floor-plate-derived netrin-1. Furthermore, we show that netrin-1 is highly expressed by cells in the ventricular zone, which can release netrin-1 at the pial surface where it binds to commissural axons. Notably, Ntn1 deletion from the ventricular zone phenocopies commissural axon guidance defects previously described in Ntn1-knockout mice. These results show that the classical view that attraction of commissural axons is mediated by a gradient of floor-plate-derived netrin-1 is inaccurate and that netrin-1 primarily acts locally by promoting growth cone adhesion.

A mutant with bilateral whisker to barrel inputs unveils somatosensory mapping rules in the cerebral cortex.

In mammals, tactile information is mapped topographically onto the contralateral side of the brain in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1). In this study, we describe Robo3 mouse mutants in which a sizeable fraction of the trigemino-thalamic inputs project ipsilaterally rather than contralaterally. The resulting mixture of crossed and uncrossed sensory inputs creates bilateral whisker maps in the thalamus and cortex. Surprisingly, these maps are segregated resulting in duplication of whisker representations and doubling of the number of barrels without changes in the size of S1. Sensory deprivation shows competitive interactions between the ipsi/contralateral whisker maps. This study reveals that the somatosensory system can form a somatotopic map to integrate bilateral sensory inputs, but organizes the maps in a different way from that in the visual or auditory systems. Therefore, while molecular pre-patterning constrains their orientation and position, preservation of the continuity of inputs defines the layout of the somatosensory maps.

A simple method for 3D analysis of immunolabeled axonal tracts in a transparent nervous system.

Clearing techniques have been developed to transparentize mouse brains, thereby preserving 3D structure, but their complexity has limited their use. Here, we show that immunolabeling of axonal tracts followed by optical clearing with solvents (3DISCO) and light-sheet microscopy reveals brain connectivity in mouse embryos and postnatal brains. We show that the Robo3 receptor is selectively expressed by medial habenula axons forming the fasciculus retroflexus (FR) and analyzed the development of this commissural tract in mutants of the Slit/Robo and DCC/Netrin pathways. Netrin-1 and DCC are required to attract FR axons to the midline, but the two mutants exhibit specific and heterogeneous axon guidance defects. Moreover, floor-plate-specific deletion of Slit ligands with a conditional Slit2 allele perturbs not only midline crossing by FR axons but also their anteroposterior distribution. In conclusion, this method represents a unique and powerful imaging tool to study axonal connectivity in mutant mice.