Inhibitors of Aspartate Transcarbamoylase Inhibit Mycobacterium tuberculosis Growth.

Aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATCase) plays a key role in the second step of de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis in eukaryotes and has been proposed to be a target to suppress cell proliferation in E. coli, human cells and the malarial parasite. We hypothesized that a library of ATCase inhibitors developed for malarial ATCase (PfATCase) may also contain inhibitors of the tubercular ATCase and provide a similar inhibition of cellular proliferation. Of the 70 compounds screened, 10 showed single-digit micromolar inhibition in an in vitro activity assay and were tested for their effect on M. tuberculosis cell growth in culture. The most promising compound demonstrated a MIC90 of 4 µM. A model of MtbATCase was generated using the experimental coordinates of PfATCase. In silico docking experiments showed this compound can occupy a similar allosteric pocket on MtbATCase to that seen on PfATCase, explaining the observed species selectivity seen for this compound series.

Discovery of Small-Molecule Allosteric Inhibitors of PfATC as Antimalarials.

The discovery and development of new drugs against malaria remain urgent. Aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATC) has been suggested to be a promising target for antimalarial drug development. Here, we describe a series of small-molecule inhibitors of P. falciparum ATC with low nanomolar binding affinities that selectively bind to a previously unreported allosteric pocket, thereby inhibiting ATC activation. We demonstrate that the buried allosteric pocket is located close to the traditional ATC active site and that reported compounds maintain the active site of PfATC in its low substrate affinity/low activity conformation. These compounds inhibit parasite growth in blood stage cultures at single digit micromolar concentrations, whereas limited effects were seen against human normal lymphocytes. To our knowledge, this series represent the first PfATC-specific allosteric inhibitors.

High Endurance Elite Athletes Show Age-dependent Lower Levels of Circulating Complements Compared to Low/Moderate Endurance Elite Athletes.

Introduction: Aerobic exercise activates the complement system in the peripheral blood. However, the effect of age and high intensity endurance training on the levels of circulating complements and sassociated inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress markers and cellular aging remains unknown. Methods: In this study, serum samples from 79 elite athletes who belong to high (n = 48) and low/moderate (n = 31) endurance sports and two age groups (below 30 years old, n = 53, and above 30 years old, n = 26) were profiled for 14 complements. Linear models were used to assess differences in complements levels between sport and age groups. Spearmann's correlation was used to assess the relationship among detected complements and proinflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress markers and telomere lengths. Results: High endurance elite athletes exhibited significantly lower levels of circulating C2, C3b/iC3b and adipsin complements than their age-matched low/moderate endurance counterparts. Levels of C2, adipsin and C3b/iC3b were positively correlated with most detected complements, the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha and IL-22 and the anti-oxidant enzyme catalase. However, they were negatively correlated with telomere length only in younger elite athletes regardless of their sport groups. Furthermore, high endurance elite athletes showed significantly lower concentrations of C3b/iC3b, C4b, C5, C5a, C1q, C3, C4, factor H and properdin in younger athletes compared to their older counterparts. Conclusion: Our novel data suggest that high endurance elite athletes exhibit age-independent lower levels of circulating C2, C3b/iC3b and adipsin, associated with lower inflammatory, oxidative stress and cellular aging, as well as lower levels of 10 other complements in younger athletes compared to older counterparts. Assessing the effect of various levels of endurance sports on complements-based immune response provides a better understanding of exercise physiology and pathophysiology of elite athletes.

A fragment-based approach identifies an allosteric pocket that impacts malate dehydrogenase activity.

Malate dehydrogenases (MDHs) sustain tumor growth and carbon metabolism by pathogens including Plasmodium falciparum. However, clinical success of MDH inhibitors is absent, as current small molecule approaches targeting the active site are unselective. The presence of an allosteric binding site at oligomeric interface allows the development of more specific inhibitors. To this end we performed a differential NMR-based screening of 1500 fragments to identify fragments that bind at the oligomeric interface. Subsequent biophysical and biochemical experiments of an identified fragment indicate an allosteric mechanism of 4-(3,4-difluorophenyl) thiazol-2-amine (4DT) inhibition by impacting the formation of the active site loop, located >30 Å from the 4DT binding site. Further characterization of the more tractable homolog 4-phenylthiazol-2-amine (4PA) and 16 other derivatives are also reported. These data pave the way for downstream development of more selective molecules by utilizing the oligomeric interfaces showing higher species sequence divergence than the MDH active site.

Pharmacological Rationale for Targeting IL-17 in Asthma.

Asthma is a respiratory disease that currently affects around 300 million people worldwide and is defined by coughing, shortness of breath, wheezing, mucus overproduction, chest tightness, and expiratory airflow limitation. Increased levels of interleukin 17 (IL-17) have been observed in sputum, nasal and bronchial biopsies, and serum of patients with asthma compared to healthy controls. Patients with higher levels of IL-17 have a more severe asthma phenotype. Biologics are available for T helper 2 (Th2)-high asthmatics, but the Th17-high subpopulation has a relatively low response to these treatments, rendering it a rather severe asthma phenotype to treat. Several experimental models suggest that targeting the IL-17 pathway may be beneficial in asthma. Moreover, as increased activation of the Th17/IL-17 axis is correlated with reduced inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) sensitivity, targeting the IL-17 pathway might reverse ICS unresponsiveness. In this review, we present and discuss the current knowledge on the role of IL-17 in asthma and its interaction with the Th2 pathway, focusing on the rationale for therapeutic targeting of the IL-17 pathway.

Metabolic Signature of Leukocyte Telomere Length in Elite Male Soccer Players.

Introduction: Biological aging is associated with changes in the metabolic pathways. Leukocyte telomere length (LTL) is a predictive marker of biological aging; however, the underlying metabolic pathways remain largely unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the metabolic alterations and identify the metabolic predictors of LTL in elite male soccer players. Methods: Levels of 837 blood metabolites and LTL were measured in 126 young elite male soccer players who tested negative for doping abuse at anti-doping laboratory in Italy. Multivariate analysis using orthogonal partial least squares (OPLS), univariate linear models and enrichment analyses were conducted to identify metabolites and metabolic pathways associated with LTL. Generalized linear model followed by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis were conducted to identify top metabolites predictive of LTL. Results: Sixty-seven metabolites and seven metabolic pathways showed significant associations with LTL. Among enriched pathways, lysophospholipids, benzoate metabolites, and glycine/serine/threonine metabolites were elevated with longer LTL. Conversely, monoacylglycerols, sphingolipid metabolites, long chain fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids were enriched with shorter telomeres. ROC analysis revealed eight metabolites that best predict LTL, including glutamine, N-acetylglutamine, xanthine, beta-sitosterol, N2-acetyllysine, stearoyl-arachidonoyl-glycerol (18:0/20:4), N-acetylserine and 3-7-dimethylurate with AUC of 0.75 (0.64-0.87, p < 0.0001). Conclusion: This study characterized the metabolic activity in relation to telomere length in elite soccer players. Investigating the functional relevance of these associations could provide a better understanding of exercise physiology and pathophysiology of elite athletes.

Molecular Target Validation of Aspartate Transcarbamoylase from Plasmodium falciparum by Torin 2.

Malaria is a tropical disease that kills about half a million people around the world annually. Enzymatic reactions within pyrimidine biosynthesis have been proven to be essential for Plasmodium proliferation. Here we report on the essentiality of the second enzymatic step of the pyrimidine biosynthesis pathway, catalyzed by aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATC). Crystallization experiments using a double mutant ofPlasmodium falciparum ATC (PfATC) revealed the importance of the mutated residues for enzyme catalysis. Subsequently, this mutant was employed in protein interference assays (PIAs), which resulted in inhibition of parasite proliferation when parasites transfected with the double mutant were cultivated in medium lacking an excess of nutrients, including aspartate. Addition of 5 or 10 mg/L of aspartate to the minimal medium restored the parasites' normal growth rate. In vitro and whole-cell assays in the presence of the compound Torin 2 showed inhibition of specific activity and parasite growth, respectively. In silico analyses revealed the potential binding mode of Torin 2 to PfATC. Furthermore, a transgenic ATC-overexpressing cell line exhibited a 10-fold increased tolerance to Torin 2 compared with control cultures. Taken together, our results confirm the antimalarial activity of Torin 2, suggesting PfATC as a target of this drug and a promising target for the development of novel antimalarials.

Oligomeric protein interference validates druggability of aspartate interconversion in Plasmodium falciparum.

The appearance of multi-drug resistant strains of malaria poses a major challenge to human health and validated drug targets are urgently required. To define a protein's function in vivo and thereby validate it as a drug target, highly specific tools are required that modify protein function with minimal cross-reactivity. While modern genetic approaches often offer the desired level of target specificity, applying these techniques is frequently challenging-particularly in the most dangerous malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. Our hypothesis is that such challenges can be addressed by incorporating mutant proteins within oligomeric protein complexes of the target organism in vivo. In this manuscript, we provide data to support our hypothesis by demonstrating that recombinant expression of mutant proteins within P. falciparum leverages the native protein oligomeric state to influence protein function in vivo, thereby providing a rapid validation of potential drug targets. Our data show that interference with aspartate metabolism in vivo leads to a significant hindrance in parasite survival and strongly suggest that enzymes integral to aspartate metabolism are promising targets for the discovery of novel antimalarials.

Identification of potential antivirulence agents by substitution-oriented screening for inhibitors of Streptococcus pyogenes sortase A.

Antimicrobial resistance resulting in ineffective treatment of infectious diseases is an increasing global problem, particularly in infections with pathogenic bacteria. In some bacteria, such as Streptococcus pyogenes, the pathogenicity is strongly linked to the attachment of virulence factors. Their attachment to the cellular membrane is a transpeptidation reaction, catalyzed by sortase enzymes. As such, sortases pose an interesting target for the development of new antivirulence strategies that could yield novel antimicrobial drugs. Using the substitution-oriented fragment screening (SOS) approach, we discovered a potent and specific inhibitor (C10) of sortase A from S. pyogenes. The inhibitor C10 showed high specificity towards S. pyogenes sortase A, with an IC50 value of 10 µM and a Kd of 60 µM. We envision that this inhibitor could be employed as a starting point for further exploration of sortase's potential as therapeutic target for antimicrobial drug development.

Identification of a non-competitive inhibitor of Plasmodium falciparum aspartate transcarbamoylase.

Aspartate transcarbamoylase catalyzes the second step of de-novo pyrimidine biosynthesis. As malarial parasites lack pyrimidine salvage machinery and rely on de-novo production for growth and proliferation, this pathway is a target for drug discovery. Previously, an apo crystal structure of aspartate transcarbamoylase from Plasmodium falciparum (PfATC) in its T-state has been reported. Here we present crystal structures of PfATC in the liganded R-state as well as in complex with the novel inhibitor, 2,3-napthalenediol, identified by high-throughput screening. Our data shows that 2,3-napthalediol binds in close proximity to the active site, implying an allosteric mechanism of inhibition. Furthermore, we report biophysical characterization of 2,3-napthalenediol. These data provide a promising starting point for structure based drug design targeting PfATC and malarial de-novo pyrimidine biosynthesis.

A Systematic Protein Refolding Screen Method using the DGR Approach Reveals that Time and Secondary TSA are Essential Variables.

Refolding of proteins derived from inclusion bodies is very promising as it can provide a reliable source of target proteins of high purity. However, inclusion body-based protein production is often limited by the lack of techniques for the detection of correctly refolded protein. Thus, the selection of the refolding conditions is mostly achieved using trial and error approaches and is thus a time-consuming process. In this study, we use the latest developments in the differential scanning fluorimetry guided refolding approach as an analytical method to detect correctly refolded protein. We describe a systematic buffer screen that contains a 96-well primary pH-refolding screen in conjunction with a secondary additive screen. Our research demonstrates that this approach could be applied for determining refolding conditions for several proteins. In addition, it revealed which "helper" molecules, such as arginine and additives are essential. Four different proteins: HA-RBD, MDM2, IL-17A and PD-L1 were used to validate our refolding approach. Our systematic protocol evaluates the impact of the "helper" molecules, the pH, buffer system and time on the protein refolding process in a high-throughput fashion. Finally, we demonstrate that refolding time and a secondary thermal shift assay buffer screen are critical factors for improving refolding efficiency.

Crystal structure of truncated human coatomer protein complex subunit ζ1 (Copζ1).

The majority of modern anticancer approaches target DNA/protein targets involved in tumour-cell proliferation. Such approaches have a major drawback, as nonproliferating cancer cells remain unaffected and may cause relapse or remission. Human coatomer protein complex I (COPI) subunit ζ (Copζ), a component of the coat protein involved in cell apoptosis and intracellular trafficking, has recently been proposed as a potential anticancer drug target. Previous studies have shown that two different isoforms of the Copζ subunit exist in mammalian cells. While normal cells express both Copζ1 and Copζ2 isoforms, various types of tumour cells display a loss of Copζ2 expression and rely solely on Copζ1 for growth and survival. Subsequent knockdown of Copζ1 results in specific inhibition of both proliferating and dormant tumour-cell populations, with no adverse growth effects on normal cells. Therefore, a Copζ1-targeting therapy was proposed to bypass the problem of dormant cancer cells that are resistant to conventional antiproliferative drugs, which is the major cause of tumour relapse. In order to aid in structure-based inhibitor design, a crystal structure is required. In this article, the recombinant expression, purification, crystallization and crystal structure of Copζ1, as well as the expression and purification of Copζ2, are reported.

In vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and metabolism of pyrazole-based small molecule inhibitors of Mdm2/4-p53 interaction.

PURPOSE: The interaction of p53 with its negative regulators Mdm2/4 has been widely studied (Khoury and Domling in Curr Pharm Des 18(30):4668-4678, 2012). In p53(+/+) cells, expression of Mdm2/4 leads to p53 turnover, inhibition of downstream transcription, decreasing cell cycle arrest, or apoptosis. We report in vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and metabolism of YH264, YH263, and WW751, three proposed small molecule inhibitors of the Mdm2/4-p53 interaction. METHODS: MTT cytotoxicity assays were performed, and alterations in proteins were examined using western blots. Mice were dosed 150 mg/kg YH264 or YH263 IV or PO QDx5. Mice were IV dosed 88, 57, or 39 mg/kg WW751 for 3, 5, or 5 days. YH264, YH263, and WW751 and metabolites were quantitated by LC-MS/MS. RESULTS: IC50 values for YH264, YH263, and WW751 against p53 wild-type HCT 116 cells after 72 h of incubation were 18.3 ± 2.3, 8.9 ± 0.6, and 3.1 ± 0.2 µM, respectively. Only YH264 appeared to affect p53 expression in vitro. None of the compounds affected the growth of HCT 116 xenografts in C.B-17 SCID mice. YH264 plasma half-life was 147 min; YH263 plasma half-life was 263 min; and WW751 plasma half-life was less than 120 min. CONCLUSIONS: Despite dosing the mice at the maximum soluble doses, we could not achieve tumor concentrations equivalent to the intracellular concentrations required to inhibit cell growth in vitro. YH263 and WW751 do not appear to affect p53/Mdm2, and none of the three were active in a subcutaneous HCT 116 p53(+/+) xenograft model.

ANCHOR: a web server and database for analysis of protein-protein interaction binding pockets for drug discovery.

ANCHOR is a web-based tool whose aim is to facilitate the analysis of protein-protein interfaces with regard to its suitability for small molecule drug design. To this end, ANCHOR exploits the so-called anchor residues, i.e. amino acid side-chains deeply buried at protein-protein interfaces, to indicate possible druggable pockets to be targeted by small molecules. For a given protein-protein complex submitted by the user, ANCHOR calculates the change in solvent accessible surface area (DeltaSASA) upon binding for each side-chain, along with an estimate of its contribution to the binding free energy. A Jmol-based tool allows the user to interactively visualize selected anchor residues in their pockets as well as the stereochemical properties of the surrounding region such as hydrogen bonding. ANCHOR includes a Protein Data Bank (PDB) wide database of pre-computed anchor residues from more than 30,000 PDB entries with at least two protein chains. The user can query according to amino acids, buried area (SASA), energy or keywords related to indication areas, e.g. oncogene or diabetes. This database provides a resource to rapidly assess protein-protein interactions for the suitability of small molecules or fragments with bioisostere anchor analogues as possible compounds for pharmaceutical intervention. ANCHOR web server and database are freely available at http://structure.pitt.edu/anchor.