Incidence of atrial fibrillation after percutaneous closure of patent foramen ovale and small atrial septal defects in patients presenting with cryptogenic stroke.

OBJECTIVE: The occurrence of atrial fibrillation after percutaneous closure of a patent foramen ovale for cryptogenic stroke has been reported in a variable percentage of patients. However, its precise incidence and mechanism are presently unclear and remain to be elucidated. DESIGN: Prospective follow-up study. PATIENTS: Ninety-two patients undergoing a percutaneous patent foramen ovale closure procedure (closure group) for cryptogenic stroke were compared with a similar group of 51 patients, who were medically treated. METHODS: A systematic arrhythmia follow-up protocol to assess the incidence of AF was performed including a 7-day event-loop recording at day 1, after 6 and 12 months in patients of the closure group and compared with those of the medically treated group. RESULTS: The incidence of AF was similar in both study groups during a follow-up of 12 months, including 7.6% (95% CI: 3.1-15.0%) in the closure and 7.8% (95% CI: 2.18-18.9%) in the medically treated group (P=1.0). The presence of a large patent foramen ovale was the only significant risk factor for the occurrence of AF as demonstrated by a multivariate Cox regression analysis (95% CI, 1.275-20.018; P=0.021). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that patients with cryptogenic stroke and patent foramen ovale have a rather high incidence of AF during a follow-up of 12 months. Atrial fibrillation occurred with a similar frequency whether the patent foramen ovale/atrial septal defect was successfully percutaneously closed or was medically managed. The presence of a large patent foramen ovale was the only significant predictor of AF occurrence during follow-up.

An analytical model for the investigation of axial wall forces generated by an arterial stenosis.

The causes of arteriosclerosis are intensively investigated since many decades. While circumferential wall stress has received a lot of attention, axial stress (also called "longitudinal" stress) has been largely neglected, and practically never incriminated. However, it has been suggested in 2003 that moderate and severe arterial stenoses may induce non negligible axial forces cyclically in the vessel segment just proximal to the constriction cone. In the present contribution, we describe a simple analytical model that allows to study the distribution of these forces along the vessel in dependence of the respective axial elasticities of vessel and surrounding tissues, and of the stenosis length.

Estimation of the axial wall strains induced by an arterial stenosis at peak flow.

In the last 30 years, thousands of basic or clinical studies have been devoted to atherosclerosis or to the problem of restenosis after angioplasty. In these studies, axial stresses in the vessel wall have received practically no attention, contrary to circumferential stress and purely biological aspects. Based on a recent article describing how arterial stenoses can induce a considerable increase in axial wall stress during flow systole in the region immediately proximal to the stenosis entrance, we have used a simple (theoretical) spring model and data available in the literature on the mechanical properties of arteries to investigate the relative wall elongations (axial strains) resulting from the systolic increases in axial stress generated by the stenosis. The model shows that high axial wall strains are tightly limited to the stenosis entrance if the axial wall forces generating the supplementary stress are strongly absorbed by the tissues surrounding the vessel. Inversely, if this absorption is weak, the zone of high strains extends over a longer vessel segment upstream of the stenosis entrance. The maximum strain value, which is always situated at the stenosis entrance, appears to be relatively independent of the presence or absence of surrounding tissues. The simulation also shows that in a 3 mm coronary artery presenting a 75% diameter stenosis, the axial strain at the stenosis entrance can exceed 10% at peak flow, depending on the respective axial elasticities of vessel wall and surrounding tissues. In a more severe stenosis, or in case of a pathologically high systolic pressure, the maximum strain value might even exceed 20%. Since abnormal axial strains have been shown to induce abnormal biological processes in smooth muscle cells cultures, it is quite conceivable that such axial strains are deleterious, at least in arterial segments whose length normally does not vary.

[Study of left ventricular function at rest and post-exercise with thallium-201 myocardial scintigraphy synchronized with ECG]. / Etude de la fonction ventriculaire gauche au repos et dans le post-effort par la tomoscintigraphie myocardique au thallium-201 synchronisée à l'ECG.

ECG-gated Thallium 201 myocardial scintigraphy provides a simultaneous evaluation of left ventricular perfusion and function. The aims of this study were to determine the changes in left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) after exercise and at rest 4 hours after exercise and to compare the results with changes in myocardial perfusion and the severity of the coronary artery disease. Sixty-four men with myocardial ischaemia on scintigraphy who had undergone coronary angiography showing significant lesions within 3 months, were compared with 38 normal men. The ejection fraction was calculated with a validated programme (QGS). The change in LVEF between the post-exercise and resting measurement 4 hours after exercise (delta LVEF) was compared in the normal and ischaemic groups (+7 +/- 6.8% vs -5.6 +/- 5%, p < 0.001). The extent of the ischaemia (percentage myocardium unperfused) was significantly greater in the 34 patients who had an over 5% reduction in LVEF on exercise compared with the 30 others who has a less than 5% reductionin LVEF (11.8 vs 6.3%, p < 0.001). There was a linear correlation between the degree of ischaemia and delta LVEF in the 30 patients without a history of infarction (r = -0.76, p < 0.01). The delta LVEF also correlated with the number and site of the coronary lesions. The authors conclude that in this male population, ECG-gated Thallium 201 myocardial scintigraphy can demonstrate a decrease in LVEF after exercise in ischaemic coronary patients whereas it increases in normal subjects. This decrease in LVEF on exercise is correlated with the extent of ischaemia and the severity of the coronary disease and should therefore be taken into account in patient management.

A morphological-mechanical explanation of edge restenosis in lesions treated with vascular brachytherapy.

PURPOSE: Edge restenosis in stenotic lesions treated by implantation of a conventional stent followed (or preceded) by a catheter-based brachytherapy is often attributed to "geographic miss" (GM). We propose a complementary (or, possibly, alternative) explanation based on the concept that a clear postprocedural mismatch between the in-stent lumen and the normal (undilated) lumens of the proximal and/or distal vessel segments results in an excessive, damageable increase of axial wall stress in these segments. METHODS: The possible poststenting situations at both margins of a stent are examined, and based on the presence or absence of an increase in axial wall stress, predictions are made about the lesion evolution. The concept is then also examined in the light of published observations. RESULTS: None of the analyzed observations appeared to be incompatible with the proposed morphological-mechanical explanation. CONCLUSION: From a mechanical point of view, optimal matching of the proximal and distal stent diameters to the corresponding normal diameters of the adjacent arterial segment is likely to reduce the rate of edge restenosis.

[Prognostic value of thallium 201 myocardial scintigraphy with dipyridamole before peripheral arterial surgery]. / Valeur pronostique de la tomoscintigraphie myocardique au thallium-201 sensibilisée au dipyridamole avant chirurgie artérielle périphérique.

The evaluation of patients who are candidates for peripheral arterial surgery is difficult. The aim of this study was to show that dipyridamole stress scintigraphy could be a prognostic aid for patient selection. Between 1991 and 2000, 275 patients underwent dipyridamole stress myocardial scintigraphy before peripheral arterial surgery of the lower limbs (49%), the aortic (33%) or carotid arteries (18%). A perfusion defect was observed in 145 patients suggesting myocardial ischaemia in 79 cases and myocardial infarction in 66 cases. Twenty-seven of the 79 ischaemic patients underwent a preoperative coronary revascularisation. The operative adverse coronary events (5%) were: 7 non-fatal myocardial infarctions and 7 acute coronary syndromes. The 79 ischaemic patients had a higher risk of adverse coronary events: 11% (ischaemia) versus 3% (no ischaemia) (p < 0.01). Myocardial scintigraphy allowed stratification of patients with an intermediate risk of Eagle's score into high coronary risk (15%, ischaemia) or low coronary risk (2%, no ischaemia) (p < 0.01). The extent of the ischaemia was associated with a higher risk of adverse coronary events: 4 zones (20%) versus 1 zone (5%) (p = 0.02). Preoperative coronary revascularisation tended to reduce the risk of adverse coronary events from 15% to 4% (p = NS). Myocardial ischaemia (p < 0.0001) and left bundle branch block (p = 0.002) were the two predictive factors of an adverse operative coronary event. Thallium-dipyridamole myocardial scintigraphy with a high negative predictive value (97%) is a useful tool for the identification of high risk patients for whom an aggressive preoperative therapeutic strategy may be beneficial.

Is axial wall stress compressive in certain arteries?

In mathematical-physical models of blood vessels, the "zero-stress state" of the vessel wall is usually defined with reference to the atmospheric pressure (pa approximately 750 mmHg = 100 kPa). Due to this conventional choice, axial and circumferential stresses generated by the (positive) transmural pressure over the radial wall depth can only be positive (in absence of residual stresses) and thus, by definition, only tensile. If the zero-stress state were defined "unconventionally" with reference to vacuum pressure (= 0 mm Hg), the isotropic compressive stress--pa generated by the atmospheric pressure everywhere in the wall would, however, be included in the stress values, and negative (= compressive) stresses would become formally possible. Since materials submitted only to compressions do not need to have the same resistive properties as materials which may also experience tractions, the question whether axial stress (and perhaps also circumferential stress) might be permanently compressive in vessels under physiologic conditions may therefore be important for investigations of the relationship between wall stresses on one side and wall structures, vessel growth, vessel damages, or vessel adaptation processes on the other side. In the present study, radial, circumferential, and axial wall stresses were calculated conventionally and "unconventionally" for three representative "vessel examples." The results clearly suggest that axial wall stress might well be compressive in many vessels. Furthermore, relative differences between conventional and unconventional stress values are quite considerable, and ratios between stresses calculated in the same manner appear to be strongly dependent on the chosen zero-stress state definition.

Altered expression of proteins of metabolic regulation during remodeling of the left ventricle after myocardial infarction.

Non-infarcted myocardium after coronary occlusion undergoes progressive morphological and functional changes. The purpose of this study was to determine whether non-infarcted myocardium exhibits (1) alteration of the substrate pattern of myocardial metabolism and (2) concomitant changes in the expression of regulatory proteins of glucose and fatty acid metabolism. Myocardial infarction was induced in rats by ligation of the left coronary artery. One day and eight weeks after coronary occlusion, glucose and palmitate oxidation were measured. Expression of selected proteins of metabolism were determined one day to 12 weeks after infarction. One day after coronary occlusion no difference of glucose and palmitate oxidation was detectable, whereas after eight weeks, glucose oxidation was increased (+84%, P<0.05) and palmitate oxidation did not change significantly (-19%, P=0.07) in infarct-containing hearts, compared with hearts from sham-operated rats. One day after coronary occlusion, myocardial mRNA expression of the glucose transporter GLUT-1 was increased (+86%, P<0.05) and the expression of GLUT-4 was decreased (-28%, P<0.05) in surviving myocardium of infarct-containing hearts. Protein level of GLUT-1 was increased (+81%, P<0.05) and that of GLUT-4 slightly, but not significantly, decreased (-16%, P=NS). mRNA expressions of heart fatty acid binding protein (H-FABP), and of medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (MCAD), were decreased by 36% (P<0.05) and 35% (P=0. 07), respectively. Eight weeks after acute infarction, the left ventricle was hypertrophied and, at this time-point, there was no difference in the expression of GLUT-1 and GLUT-4 between infarcted and sham-operated hearts. However, myocardial mRNA and protein content of MCAD were decreased by 30% (P<0.01) and 27% (P<0.05), respectively. In summary, in surviving myocardium, glucose oxidation was increased eight weeks after coronary occlusion. Concomitantly, mRNA and protein expression of MCAD were decreased, compatible with a role of altered expression of regulatory proteins of metabolism in post-infarction modification of myocardial metabolism.

The effect of image distortion on 3-D reconstruction of coronary bypass grafts from angiographic views.

Three-dimensional (3-D) reconstructions of coronary bypass grafts performed from X-ray angiographic images may become increasingly important for the investigation of damaging mechanical stresses imposed to these vessels by the cyclic movement of the heart. Contrary to what we had experienced with coronary arteries, appreciable reconstruction artifacts frequently occur with grafts. In order to verify the hypothesis that those are caused by distortions present in the angiographic images (acquired with image intensifiers), we have implemented a grid correction technique in our 3-D reconstruction method and studied its efficiency with phantom experiments. In this article, the nature of the encountered artifacts and the way in which the dewarping correction eliminates them are illustrated by a phantom experiment and by the reconstruction of a real coronary bypass vein graft.

In-vivo measurements of wall shear stress in human coronary arteries.

BACKGROUND: Wall shear stress (WSS) is closely associated with arteriosclerosis. WSS values for various vessels and species are available, but fully in-vivo measurements in human coronary arteries have not yet been reported. OBJECTIVE: To measure WSS in undiseased coronary arteries of adult patients at rest. METHODS: We recorded the temporal average value (APV) of the instantaneous maximal blood velocity in the three vessel segments of angiographically normal coronary artery bifurcations in 21 patients undergoing cardiac catheterization to treat various diseases by means of a 0.036 cm Doppler wire (FloWire). In total, 36 bifurcations were examined. The 36 x 3 cross-sectional areas (CSA) were determined by means of a three-dimensional angiographic technique. The three flows, Q1 (inflow), Q2, and Q3 of each bifurcation were calculated according to Q=0.5 x APV x CSA. For each segment, WSS was calculated as WSS=32 eta Q/(pi D3) (where blood viscosity eta=3.5 mPa s and D is vessel diameter). Only the 54 WSS values obtained from the 18 flow triplets which satisfied the equation Q1/(Q2+Q3)=1 better than did the 18 other ones were retained. RESULTS: The 54 WSS values ranged from 0.33 to 1.24 Pa (mean 0.68 Pa, SEM, 0.027 Pa). They did not depend significantly on Q (r=0.07; P=0.60) and the CSA (r=0.24, P=0.08) but the second relationship approached significance. CONCLUSION: The obtained mean WSS value (0.68 Pa) is half the value predicted for coronary arteries from optimality principles. It is also smaller than many values reported for human carotid, renal, and femoral arteries.

A new technique for improved densitometric quantification of coronary artery stenoses in angiographic images.

In vitro studies have demonstrated that densitometric quantification of coronary artery stenoses is superior to geometric methods to assess non-circular lumens. However, in patients, several authors have reported significant discrepancies between area reduction percentages obtained densitometrically from two different imaging projections. Some of the factors causing the discrepancies can be reduced by simple precautions taken during image acquisition. Some others may be compensated for during analysis. Nevertheless, two factors remain problematic. The first is the inadequate spatial orientation of the vessel axes at the stenotic and reference cross sections with respect to the x-rays. The second is the difficulty in identifying the same vessel cross section in both planes at the time of analysis. We have designed a new densitometric technique that eliminates the error contributions of these two factors. The technique requires simultaneously acquired biplane coronary angiograms and biplane images of a translucent cube bearing steel markers acquired in exactly the same biplane geometry. Using the two projection matrices calculated from the images of the cube, the centerlines and the edges of the coronary arteries can be reconstructed in space from the biplane angiograms. The angles between the vessel axes and the x-ray beams can be determined and the densitometric cross sections can be corrected accordingly. Moreover, the 3D reconstruction allows the identification of the same cross section in the two planes for the determination of the area reduction percentages. Validation measurements were performed on a Perspex phantom and in patients, before and after angioplasty. In both types of measurement, the interplane discrepancies could be roughly halved. The densitometric technique presented can be incorporated into routine angiography and could become a strong alternative to the geometric approach that is presently dominating this field.

Magnum wire for percutaneous coronary balloon angioplasty in 800 total chronic occlusions.

The experience in consecutive procedures with 800 recanalization attempts of chronic total coronary occlusions using the Magnum wire was analyzed from a prospectively constituted computerized database. The data confirm that the Magnum wire, generally used as a primary intervention for occlusive angioplasty at our centers, is competitive with conventional systems in this setting.

[Thrombolysis in acute myocardial infarct in everyday clinical practice]. / Thrombolyse dans l'infarctus aigu du myocarde en pratique clinique courante.

We prospectively included in a database all thrombolyzed acute transmural myocardial infarction patients admitted to our hospital from November 1986 to September 1995. Six hundred and twenty-seven patients (497 males) with a mean age of 61 +/- 12 years (range 26-88 years) were included. 87% were having their first acute myocardial infarction. Different thrombolytic regimens were applied in the emergency room but the vast majority (92%) received t-PA. The median delay between the onset of pain and admission was 2 h 0 min (10 min-22 h). The median admission to treatment time was 40 min (5 min-6 h 20 min). The latter has been shortened (median 55 min from 1986 to 1989 versus 35 min from 1990 to 1995, p < 0.05) during the study period. The rate of intracerebral hemorrhage was 2.4% (confidence interval 1.1-3.5%) and no significant predictor could be found, although patients with cerebral bleeding tended to be slightly older (66 +/- 9 years vs 61 +/- 13 years, p = ns). The rate of false diagnosis was only 4.6%, even when patients with a final diagnosis of unstable angina and/or aborted acute myocardial infarction were included. The in-hospital mortality was 8.8%, a rate similar to those reported in the literature. Using multivariate analysis, negative prognostic factors were higher age (p < 0.001), advanced Killip class at admission (p < 0.001) and elevated peak CPK levels (p < 0.001). These results confirm that thrombolysis for acute myocardial infarction in the emergency room can be done with a short admission-to-treatment time and with an acceptably low rate of false diagnosis. However, our intracerebral hemorrhage rate was clearly higher than generally reported in the literature and may be explained by a different patient selection from that in large randomized studies.

A new densitometric approach to the assessment of mean coronary flow.

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: The authors present an angiographic method to measure absolute coronary blood flow in patients. METHODS: The left or right coronary tree is three-dimensional (3D)-reconstructed from biplane coronary angiograms. This allows the determination of the intravascular volumes needed for flow measurement. The 3D distance traveled by the contrast medium during one cardiac cycle is determined by appropriately thresholding the "concentration-distance", curves computed on two pairs of images taken one cardiac cycle apart. RESULTS: The angiographic flow measurements were compared with nearly simultaneous flow determinations obtained with an intracoronary ultrasonic Doppler flow velocity measuring device. The mean relative difference between the Doppler and the 3D measurements was 11% and the two sets of flow values correlated well (r = 0.81). CONCLUSIONS: A method for the determination of mean coronary flow is presented. The procedure is simple and can be incorporated easily into clinical routine.

Feasibility of intracoronary beta-irradiation to reduce restenosis after balloon angioplasty. A clinical pilot study.

BACKGROUND: With the aim of decreasing the incidence of restenosis after coronary balloon angioplasty, we developed a technique of intracoronary beta-irradiation using an endoluminally centered pure metallic 90Y source. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the clinical feasibility and safety profile of this approach with a dose of 18 Gy delivered to the inner arterial surface. METHODS AND RESULTS: Between June 21 and November 15, 1995, fifteen patients (6 women and 9 men; mean age, 71 +/- 5 years) underwent intracoronary beta-irradiation immediately after a conventional percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) procedure. The PTCA/irradiation procedure was technically feasible in all attempted cases, and the delivery of the 18 Gy dose was accomplished without complications. In 4 patients, the intervention was completed through intra-arterial stent implantation because of dissection induced by the initial PTCA. During the follow-up period of 178 +/- 17 days (range, 150 to 225 days), no complication occurred that could be attributed to radiation therapy. No aneurysm or angiographically detectable thrombus was observed in any of the irradiated arterial segments. The clinical event rate (4 of 15 patients underwent further target lesion revascularization) and the angiographic follow-up (6 of 15 patients had a > 50%-diameter stenosis at the previously treated site) did not suggest a marked impact on the expected restenosis rate. CONCLUSIONS: This early experience demonstrates that our approach is feasible, and no side effects attributable to radiation were noted during a 6-month period of follow-up. Whether higher doses of beta-irradiation will favorably affect post-PTCA restenosis in patients must await further evaluation.

Towards a gold standard for quantitative coronary arteriography.

Densitometric quantification of coronary artery stenoses in angiographic images can be problematic for two reasons: (i) the x-rays are inadequately oriented with respect to the vessel segments of interest at image acquisition; (ii) non-linear effects due for instance to beam hardening, scattered radiation and veiling glare may reduce the accuracy. As a consequence, appreciable discrepancies between degrees of stenosis measured in two different projections can occur. To overcome these limitations, we have designed and tested a combined correction that compensates (at subsequent analysis) for the error contributions due to the cited sources. It implies 3D reconstruction of the vessel segments of interest and consequently requires an appropriate biplane coronary angiogram. In experiments performed with a dedicated phantom, application of the correction improved the correlation between measured and true area reduction percentages (without correction: y = 1.04x - 4%, r = 0.97, SEE = 6%, n = 35; with correction: y = 1.02x - 0%, r = 0.99, SEE = 3%, n = 35). Applied to ten area stenoses measured biplane in patients and exhibiting strong interplane discrepancies, the correction had a comparable effect (without correction: y = 0.83x - 11%, r = 0.86, SEE = 9%, n = 10; with correction: y = 0.83x + 2%, r = 0.98, SEE = 4%, n = 10). The new densitometric method could possibly be used as a gold standard in the objective evaluation of geometric methods in patients.

[Early percutaneous coronary angioplasty in unstable angina]. / Angioplastie coronaire percutanée précoce dans l'angor instable.

The risks of complications of percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) are increased in unstable angina. Medical treatment for a few days before PTCA is widely adopted to reduce the risk of thrombosis or occlusive dissection during and after the procedure. Over the last few years, the authors have adopted a strategy of early coronary angiography completed by immediate angioplasty when possible, without waiting for the eventual benefit of aspirin or heparin therapy. Their experience from 1988 to 1995 of 853 patients treated by PTCA (151/853 or 17.7%, with implantation of a stent) for unstable angina, was reviewed. Group I comprised 402 patients treated on the day of or the day after admission. Group II comprised 451 patients treated 2 days or more after admission. Patients in Group I were younger (62 +/- 11 vs 64 +/- 12, p < 0.001), and had single vessel disease more often (61 vs 52%, p < 0.005). The success rate of PTCA was similar in the 2 groups (85.3 vs 88.2%, NS), as was the rate of complications (death, infarction or coronary bypass surgery, 9.9 vs 7.3%, NS). The length of hospital stay was significantly shorter in Group I (6.1 +/- 5.6 vs 8.7 +/- 6.9 days, p < 0.0001). With the limitations inherent to all retrospective studies, these data suggest that an early interventional approach in unstable angina has a similar success rate with no more complications than angioplasty. This approach is associated with a deferred significant decrease in the duration of hospital stay.

Is the indicator dilution theory really the adequate base of many blood flow measurement techniques?

The indicator dilution theory is the underlying model of many blood flow measurement techniques used daily in hospitals, for instance in cardiac catheterization laboratories. The basic version of this theory applies to a "stationary" flow system with one inlet and one outlet, into which a small amount M of indicator is injected "suddenly" at time t = 0 at the inlet. The quintessence of the theory consists in three equations, which themselves result from some apparently simple assumptions about the considered flow systems. The first equation states that the (constant) flow Q through the system can be calculated by use of the known amount of indicator, M, and of the indicator concentration-time curve c(t) recorded at the outlet. The second one allows the calculation of the "mean transit time" t* of fluid and indicator particles through the system from the curve c(t). The third equation, V = Qt*, yields the system volume V. It is generally believed that these three equations would be absolutely valid if the assumptions of the theory could be perfectly fulfilled. We show, by considering a simple model, that all three equations are actually incorrect for most flow systems when the detector used to record the curve c(t) is of the "trans-illumination" type, as is the case for instance in dye dilution methods and in many angiographic or CT techniques. A further consequence is that t*, which is truly the "center of mass" of the concentration-time curve c(t), does not have the well known property of being the adequate parameter for flow determinations. Many flow measurement techniques thus appear to have no theoretical base.

The impact of vessel orientation in space on densitometric measurements of cross sectional areas of coronary arteries.

Under ideal conditions, densitometric measurement of a coronary arterial cross section in biplane angiographic images should result in nearly equal cross sectional areas for both planes. However, quite appreciable discrepancies have been found by some authors in patients. In this study, the role of inadequate spatial orientation of the vessel axes relatively to the x-rays was assessed by use of a 3D technique applied to 60 stenoses (45 pre PTCA and 15 post PTCA) in simultaneously acquired digital biplane coronary angiograms of 27 CAD patients. The 3D technique yields two radius values per projection directly in mm at any arterial cross section of interest. This was used to determine the areas Ar(in mm2) of the reference cross sections. As with catheter calibration, these cross sections were thus assumed to be more or less circular, but out-of-plane effects and errors due to a catheter diameter determination in pixels were avoided. The areas of the stenotic sections were then determined densitometrically (in mm2) from the two projections (1 and 2) according to As1 = ArDs1/Dr1, resp. As2 = ArDs2/Dr2, where Dr1, Dr2, Ds1 and Ds2 are the conventional densitometric areas of the reference and stenotic cross sections measured in planes 1 and 2. As expected, the areas As1 and As2 correlated only moderately: As2 = 0.92 As1 + 0.7 mm2, r = 0.82, n = 60, SEE = 1.4 mm2. The 3D method also yielded the two spatial angles between the local vessel axis and the X-rays of both planes. These two angles were then used to correct each densitometric area for inadequate orientation. With the corrected densitometric areas As1c and As2c, the correlation improved to: As2c = 1.05 As1c + 0.03 mm2, r = 0.93, n = 60, SEE = 0.8 mm2. Inadequate orientation of the cross sections in space thus appears to be an important factor of inaccuracy in densitometric measurements of stenotic cross sections in patients.

Applying the object paradigm to a centralized database for a cardiology division.

In order to master the overwhelming quantity of data produced by the different laboratories of our Cardiology Division, we are presently developing a centralized database. Our aim is to improve the quality of diagnoses and therapies by constituting patient centered medical files integrating logically the results of the results of the different examinations and allowing for a rapid access to the patient data. The database has to be accessible from an heterogeneous set of PC, MacIntoshes and UNIX workstations. It must have an ergonomic graphic user interface and generate reports which can be sent to the patient physician. It is well known that the requirements for a medical database make its conceptual analysis very difficult. As medical knowledge continually evolves, the examination protocols change and, therefore, the data sets have to be updated. The maintenance of classical databases is usually expensive because it requires specialized staff to alter the database structure and to adapt the user interface. To allow for flexibility, modularity, code reusability and reliability, the object paradigm was applied to a classical relational database. Thanks to the combination of both data structure and behavior in single entities, it is possible to build generic user interfaces which can be easily tailored to the needs of every laboratory of our Cardiology Division.