Design of an electrospun tubular construct combining a mechanical and biological approach to improve tendon repair.

Hand tendon injuries represent a major clinical problem and might dramatically diminish a patient's life quality. In this study, a targeted solution for flexor tendon repair was developed by combining a mechanical and biological approach. To this end, a novel acrylate-endcapped urethane-based polymer (AUP) was synthesized and its physico-chemical properties were characterized. Next, tubular repair constructs were developed using electrospinning of the AUP material with incorporated naproxen and hyaluronic acid (i.e. anti-inflammatory and anti-adhesion compounds, respectively), and with a tubular braid as mechanical reinforcement. Tensile testing of the repair constructs using ex vivo sheep tendons showed that the developed repair constructs fulfilled the required mechanical properties for tendon repair (i.e. minimal ultimate stress of 4 MPa), with an ultimate stress of 6.4 ± 0.6 MPa. Moreover, in vitro biological assays showed that the developed repair tubes and the incorporated bioactive components were non-cytotoxic. In addition, when equine tenocytes and mesenchymal stem cells were co-cultured with the repair tubes, an increased production of collagen and non-collagenous proteins was observed. In conclusion, this novel construct in which a mechanical approach (fulfilling the required mechanical properties) was combined with a biological approach (incorporation of bioactive compounds), shows potential as flexor tendon repair application. Graphical abstract.

A straightforward method for quantification of vinyl functionalized water soluble alginates via 13C-NMR spectroscopy.

Alginates are fairly abundant in nature and possess many interesting properties, including their biocompatibility and ability to absorb large amounts of water. Hence, increasing interest in their derivatization has been observed and the determination of the number of newly introduced functionalities has become a key issue. For this purpose, literature generally reports on conventional 1H-NMR spectra, typically recorded at elevated temperatures and/or after hydrolysis of the alginate to circumvent line broadening effects resulting from the high viscosity. The present work reports on the modification of alginate with methacrylate functionalities and determination of the resulting degree of substitution (DS), i.e. the number of introduced methacrylate moieties relative to the initial amount of hydroxyl groups along the alginate backbone, via NMR spectroscopy. Freeze-drying and low power water presaturation were applied to improve the quality of the 1H NMR spectra. Nevertheless, it remains a qualitative method, to be used only for mutual comparisons of samples. A new and accurate method for DS determination of methacrylated alginates, based on 13C-NMR spectroscopy, is proposed. Quantitative 13C-NMR spectra were recorded with reduced measuring times by addition of a paramagnetic relaxation agent. The proposed method will also be applicable for other water-soluble functionalized alginates and polysaccharides in general.

Synergistic effect of κ-carrageenan and gelatin blends towards adipose tissue engineering.

The current paper focuses on the functionalization of κ-carrageenan and gelatin as extracellular matrix polysaccharide and protein mimic respectively to produce hydrogel films for adipose tissue engineering. More specifically, κ-carrageenan as well as gelatin have been functionalized with methacrylate and methacrylamide moieties respectively to enable subsequent UV-induced crosslinking in the presence of a photo-initiator. The gel fraction, the mass swelling ratio and the mechanical properties of both the one-component hydrogels and the protein/polysaccharide blends have been evaluated. The mechanical and swelling properties of the blends could be tuned by varying the hydrogel composition as well as the crosslinking method applied. The in vitro biocompatibility assays indicated a significantly higher cell viability of adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells seeded onto the blends as compared to the one-component hydrogels. The results show that the blends of gelatin and κ-carrageenan clearly outperform the one-component hydrogels in terms of adipose tissue engineering potential.

Soft tissue fillers for adipose tissue regeneration: From hydrogel development toward clinical applications.

There is a clear and urgent clinical need to develop soft tissue fillers that outperform the materials currently used for adipose tissue reconstruction. Recently, extensive research has been performed within this field of adipose tissue engineering as the commercially available products and the currently existing techniques are concomitant with several disadvantages. Commercial products are highly expensive and associated with an imposing need for repeated injections. Lipofilling or free fat transfer has an unpredictable outcome with respect to cell survival and potential resorption of the fat grafts. Therefore, researchers are predominantly investigating two challenging adipose tissue engineering strategies: in situ injectable materials and porous 3D printed scaffolds. The present work provides an overview of current research encompassing synthetic, biopolymer-based and extracellular matrix-derived materials with a clear focus on emerging fabrication technologies and developments realized throughout the last decade. Moreover, clinical relevance of the most promising materials will be discussed, together with potential concerns associated with their application in the clinic.

Activated carbon-plasticised agarose composite films for the adsorption of thiol as a model of wound malodour.

Conditions such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease and long-term immobilisation can precipitate the development of chronic dermal ulcers. Such wounds are associated with inflammation and bacterial contamination which in turn can lead to the liberation of offensive odours that cause patient embarrassment and, in some instances, social isolation. Activated carbon-containing dressings have been used to manage the odours from such wounds. However, these can be bulky and can become fouled by wound exudate. Agarose is a natural polysaccharide derived from seaweed that forms brittle free-standing films that can be made pliable by addition of a plasticiser. In this study, activated carbon-containing plasticised agarose films were evaluated for their ability to sequester thiol-containing molecules from solution and the gaseous phase. The water vapour transmission rate was also evaluated to determine the potential breathability of these films should they be considered for application to the skin. It was found that the adsorption of thiols was directly proportional to the activated carbon content of the films. Water vapour was found to pass relatively freely through the films indicating that sweat-induced tissue maceration would be unlikely to occur if applied clinically. In conclusion, activated carbon-containing plasticised agarose films have some potential in the sequestration of malodourous molecules such as those liberated from chronic dermal wounds.

The role of new zinc incorporated monetite cements on osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells.

ß-Tricalcium phosphate particles were sintered in the presence of different amounts (0-0.72mol) of zinc oxide (ZnO) to prepare zinc doped ß-TCP (Znß-TCP) particles for further use in novel monetite (DCPA: CaHPO4) zinc incorporated bone cements with osteogenic differentiation potential towards human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs). XRD analysis of zinc incorporated cements prepared with ß-TCP reagent particles doped with different amount of ZnO (i.e. 0.03, 0.09 and 0.18mol ZnO) revealed the presence of unreacted Znß-TCP and monetite. Furthermore, it was shown that zinc ions preferentially occupied the ß-TCP crystal lattice rather than the monetite one. Release experiments indicated a burst release of ions from the different fabricated cements during the first 24h of immersion with zinc concentrations ranging between 85 and 100% of the total concentration released over a period of 21days. Cell proliferation significantly increased (P<0.05) on zinc incorporated monetite respect to control samples (Zinc-free cement) at 7 and 14days post seeding. The expression of Runx-2 was significantly up regulated (P<0.05) in the case of cells seeded on monetite prepared with ß-TCP doped with 0.03 moles of ZnO. On the other hand, the cell mineralization as well as the expression of osteogenic marker genes ALP and OSC decreased significantly (P<0.05) at 14days post cell seeding. In conclusion, these results suggest that the zinc ions released from the cements during the first 24h of culture played a critical role in regulating the osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs.

Gelatin functionalised porous titanium alloy implants for orthopaedic applications.

In the present work, we studied the immobilisation of the biopolymer gelatin onto the surface of three dimensional (3D) regular Ti6Al4V porous implants to improve their surface bio-activity. The successful immobilisation of the gelatin coating was made possible by a polydopamine interlayer, a polymer coating inspired by the adhesive nature of mussels. The presence of both coatings was first optimised on two dimensional titanium (2D Ti) substrates and confirmed by different techniques including X-ray photelectron spectroscopy, contact angle measurements, atomic force microscopy and fluorescence microscopy. Results showed homogeneous coatings that are stable for at least 24h in phosphate buffer at 37°C. In a next step, the coating procedure was successfully transferred to 3D Ti6Al4V porous implants, which indicates the versatility of the applied coating procedure with regard to complex surface morphologies. Furthermore, the bio-activity of these stable gelatin coatings was enhanced by applying a third and final coating using the cell-attractive protein fibronectin. The reproducible immobilisation process allowed for a controlled biomolecule presentation to the surrounding tissue. This newly developed coating procedure outperformed the previously reported silanisation procedure for immobilising gelatin. In vitro cell adhesion and culture studies with human periosteum-derived cells showed that the investigated coatings did not compromise the biocompatible nature of Ti6Al4V porous implants, but no distinct biological differences between the coatings were found.

Direct synthesis and morphological characterization of gold-dendrimer nanocomposites prepared using PAMAM succinamic acid dendrimers: preliminary study of the calcification potential.

Gold-dendrimer nanocomposites were obtained for the first time by a simple colloidal approach based on the use of polyamidoamine dendrimers with succinamic acid terminal groups and dodecanediamine core. Spherical and highly crystalline nanoparticles with dimensions between 3 nm and 60 nm, and size-polydispersity depending on the synthesis conditions, have been generated. The influence of the stoichiometric ratio and the structural and architectural features of the dendrimers on the properties of the nanocomposites has been described. The self-assembling behaviour of these materials produces gold-dendrimer nanostructured porous networks with variable density, porosity, and composition. The investigations of the reaction systems, by TEM, at two postsynthesis moments, allowed to preliminary establish the control over the properties of the nanocomposite products. Furthermore, this study allowed better understanding of the mechanism of nanocomposite generation. Impressively, in the early stages of the synthesis, the organization of gold inside the dendrimer molecules has been evidenced by micrographs. Growth and ripening mechanisms further lead to nanoparticles with typical characteristics. The potential of such nanocomposite particles to induce calcification when coating a polymer substrate was also investigated.

Enzymatic mineralization of gellan gum hydrogel for bone tissue-engineering applications and its enhancement by polydopamine.

Interest is growing in the use of hydrogels as bone tissue-engineering (TE) scaffolds due to advantages such as injectability and ease of incorporation of active substances such as enzymes. Hydrogels consisting of gellan gum (GG), an inexpensive calcium-crosslinkable polysaccharide, have been applied in cartilage TE. To improve GG suitability as a material for bone TE, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), an enzyme involved in mineralization of bone by cleaving phosphate from organic phosphate, was incorporated into GG hydrogels to induce mineralization with calcium phosphate (CaP). Incorporated ALP induced formation of apatite-like material on the submicron scale within GG gels, as shown by FTIR, SEM, EDS, XRD, ICP-OES, TGA and von Kossa staining. Increasing ALP concentration increased amounts of CaP as well as stiffness. Mineralized GG was able to withstand sterilization by autoclaving, although stiffness decreased. In addition, mineralizability and stiffness of GG was enhanced by the incorporation of polydopamine (PDA). Furthermore, mineralization of GG led to enhanced attachment and vitality of cells in vitro while cytocompatibility of the mineralized gels was comparable to one of the most commonly used bone substitute materials. The results proved that ALP-mediated enzymatic mineralization of GG could be enhanced by functionalization with PDA.

Double protein-coated poly-ε-caprolactone scaffolds: successful 2D to 3D transfer.

In the past decade, tissue engineering has evolved from a promising technology to an established scientific field. Large attention has focussed on developing scaffolds from both biodegradable and nondegradable polymers to be cultivated with cells, to replace human body defects. The major drawback of most polymers is however their limited cell-interactive properties. An additional complication when developing a surface modification protocol for those materials is the transferability of protocols from 2D substrates to 3D scaffolds. In the present work, we therefore report on possible biological effects originating from the transfer of a double protein coating protocol, involving gelatin type B and fibronectin, from 2D poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) films to 3D PCL scaffolds produced by rapid prototyping. A variety of techniques including scanning electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and confocal fluorescence microscopy confirmed a successful and homogeneous protein-coating on both 2D and 3D substrates. Interestingly, the biological performance of the double protein-coated PCL substrates, reflected by the initial cell adhesion, proliferation, and colonization was superior compared to the other surface modification steps, independent of the material dimension.

Electromagnetic stimulation to optimize the bone regeneration capacity of gelatin-based cryogels.

One of the key challenges in reconstructive bone surgery is to provide living constructs that possess the ability to integrate in the surrounding host tissue. Bone graft substitutes and biomaterials have already been widely used to heal critical-size bone defects due to trauma, tumor resection and tissue degeneration. In the present study, gelatin-based cryogels have been seeded with human SAOS-2 osteoblasts followed by the in vitro culture of the cells. In order to overcome the drawbacks associated with static culture systems, including limited diffusion and in homogeneous cell-matrix distribution, the present work describes the application of a bioreactor to physically enhance the cell culture in vitro using an electromagnetic stimulus. The results indicate that the physical stimulation of cell-seeded gelatin-based cryogels upregulates the bone matrix production. We anticipate that the scaffolds developed consisting of human bone proteins and cells could be applied for clinical purposes related to bone repair.

Label-free magnetic resonance imaging to locate live cells in three-dimensional porous scaffolds.

Porous scaffolds are widely tested materials used for various purposes in tissue engineering. A critical feature of a porous scaffold is its ability to allow cell migration and growth on its inner surface. Up to now, there has not been a method to locate live cells deep inside a material, or in an entire structure, using real-time imaging and a non-destructive technique. Herein, we seek to demonstrate the feasibility of the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique as a method to detect and locate in vitro non-labelled live cells in an entire porous material. Our results show that the use of optimized MRI parameters (4.7 T; repetition time = 3000 ms; echo time = 20 ms; resolution 39 × 39 µm) makes it possible to obtain images of the scaffold structure and to locate live non-labelled cells in the entire material, with a signal intensity higher than that obtained in the culture medium. In the current study, cells are visualized and located in different kinds of porous scaffolds. Moreover, further development of this MRI method might be useful in several three-dimensional biomaterial tests such as cell distribution studies, routine qualitative testing methods and in situ monitoring of cells inside scaffolds.

Double protein functionalized poly-ε-caprolactone surfaces: in depth ToF-SIMS and XPS characterization.

In biomaterial research, great attention has focussed on the immobilization of biomolecules with the aim to increase cell-adhesive properties of materials. Many different strategies can be applied. In previously published work, our group focussed on the treatment of poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) films by an Ar-plasma, followed by the grafting of 2-aminoethyl methacrylate (AEMA) under UV-irradiation. The functional groups introduced, enabled the subsequent covalent immobilisation of gelatin. The obtained coating was finally applied for the physisorption of fibronectin. The successful PCL surface functionalization was preliminary confirmed using XPS, wettability studies, AFM and SEM. In the present article, we report on an in-depth characterization of the materials developed using ToF-SIMS and XPS analysis. The homogeneous AEMA grafting and the subsequent protein coating steps could be confirmed by both XPS and ToF-SIMS. Using ToF-SIMS, it was possible to demonstrate the presence of polymethacrylates on the surface. From peak deconvoluted XPS results (C- and N-peak), the presence of proteins could be confirmed. Using ToF-SIMS, different positive ions, correlating to specific amino-acids could be identified. Importantly, the gelatin and the fibronectin coatings could be qualitatively distinguished. Interestingly for biomedical applications, ethylene oxide sterilization did not affect the surface chemical composition. This research clearly demonstrates the complementarities of XPS and ToF-SIMS in biomedical surface modification research.

Effects of electromagnetic stimulation on osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stromal cells seeded onto gelatin cryogel.

Bone tissue engineering typically uses biomaterial scaffolds, osteoblasts or cells that can become osteoblasts, and biophysical stimulations to promote cell attachment and differentiation. In this study, we investigated the effects of an electromagnetic wave on mesenchymal stromal cells isolated from the bone marrow and seeded upon gelatin cryogel disks. In comparison with control conditions without electromagnetic stimulus, the electromagnetic treatment (magnetic field, 2 mT; frequency, 75 Hz) increased the cell proliferation and differentiation and enhanced the biomaterial surface coating with bone extracellular matrix proteins. Using this tissue-engineering approach, the gelatin biomaterial, coated with differentiated cells and their extracellular matrix proteins, may be used in clinical applications as an implant for bone defect repair.

Biopolymer-based hydrogels as scaffolds for tissue engineering applications: a review.

Hydrogels are physically or chemically cross-linked polymer networks that are able to absorb large amounts of water. They can be classified into different categories depending on various parameters including the preparation method, the charge, and the mechanical and structural characteristics. The present review aims to give an overview of hydrogels based on natural polymers and their various applications in the field of tissue engineering. In a first part, relevant parameters describing different hydrogel properties and the strategies applied to finetune these characteristics will be described. In a second part, an important class of biopolymers that possess thermosensitive properties (UCST or LCST behavior) will be discussed. Another part of the review will be devoted to the application of cryogels. Finally, the most relevant biopolymer-based hydrogel systems, the different methods of preparation, as well as an in depth overview of the applications in the field of tissue engineering will be given.

Surface modification of polyimide sheets for regenerative medicine applications.

In the present work, two strategies were elaborated to surface-functionalize implantable polyimide sheets. In the first methodology, cross-linkable vinyl groups were introduced on the polyimide surface using aminopropylmethacrylamide. In the second approach, a reactive succinimidyl ester was introduced on the surface of PI. Using the former approach, the aim is to apply a vinyl functionalized biopolymer coating. In the latter approach, any amine containing biopolymer can be immobilized. The foils developed were characterized in depth using a variety of characterization techniques including atomic force microscopy, static contact angle measurements, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The results indicated that both modification strategies were successful. The subcutaneous implantation in mice indicated that both modification strategies resulted in biocompatible materials, inducing only limited cellular infiltration to the surrounding tissue.

Molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction of fumonisin B analogues in bell pepper, rice and corn flakes.

A molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) for the recognition of fumonisin B analogues (FB) using 2-(diethylamino) ethyl methacrylate (DEAEM) as functional monomer and trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate (TRIM) as cross-linker was prepared by bulk polymerization in acetonitrile. Fumonisin B(1) (FB(1)) was used as a template molecule. A molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) procedure was developed for further application in the analysis of FB. The performance of the MIP throughout the clean-up of spiked bell pepper, rice and corn flake sample extracts was compared with the results obtained when using non-imprinted polymer, C(18), strong anion exchange and immunoaffinity sorbents. Extracts were analysed for FB with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) after clean-up. Depending on the food matrix and the concentration range of the fumonisins, recoveries after MISPE varied from 62 to 86%, from 62 to 83%, and from 67 to 81% for fumonisin B(1) (FB(1)), fumonisin B(2) (FB(2)) and fumonisin B(3) (FB(3)), respectively. The selectivity of the synthesized MIP for mycotoxins belonging to the group of FB was confirmed by evaluating cross-reactivity from analogue structures and other mycotoxins. Analysis of 39 naturally contaminated samples (corn flakes) by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry indicated that the synthesized MIP could be an excellent alternative for clean-up and pre-concentration of FB in food samples. Pearson correlations between immunoaffinity clean-up and MISPE were calculated and amounted to 0.923 for FB(1), 0.808 for FB(2), and 0.759 for FB(3). It was shown that the developed MIP could be reused more than 50 times. The synthesis of an FB(1) imprinted polymer and its application in food analysis is reported for the first time.

Correlation between cryogenic parameters and physico-chemical properties of porous gelatin cryogels.

In the present work, we have performed an in-depth physico-chemical and bio-physical evaluation of a series of previously described porous gelatin scaffolds (S. VanVlierberghe, V. Cnudde, P. Dubruel, B. Masschaele, A. Cosijns, I. DePaepe, P.J.S. Jacobs, L. VanHoorebeke, J.P. Remon and E. Schacht, Biomacromolecules 8, 331 (2007)). All scaffolds were prepared by a cryogenic treatment and subsequent freeze-drying. Three types of scaffolds were prepared by using different gelatin concentrations and cooling protocols. Type-I hydrogels were composed of cone-like pores with decreasing diameter from top (330 microm) to bottom (20-30 microm). Type-II and type-III scaffolds contained spherical pores with an average diameter of 135 (type II) and 65 microm (type III), respectively. The physico-chemical and bio-physical properties studied include the water uptake capacity and kinetics, the mechanical properties and the enzyme-mediated degradation. We can conclude that the pore geometry affects the water uptake capacity, the mechanical properties and the degradation profile of the hydrogels. Type-I hydrogels possess the highest water uptake, the lowest compression modulus and the fastest enzyme mediated degradation, indicating a clear effect of the pore morphology (elongated channels for type I versus spherical pores for types II and III) on the physico-chemical and bio-physical properties of the materials. In contrast to the effect of the pore geometry (channel-like versus spherical), the pore size does not significantly affect the water uptake, the mechanical properties and the enzyme mediated degradation in the investigated pore size range (65-135 microm). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report in which the effects of a cryogenic treatment on the hydrogel network properties are investigated in such detail.

Toward modulating the architecture of hydrogel scaffolds: curtains versus channels.

The design, development and evaluation of biomaterials that can sustain life or restore a certain body function, is a very important and rapidly expanding field in materials science. A key issue in the development of biomaterials is the design of a material that mimics the natural environment of cells. In the present work, we have therefore developed hydrogel materials that contain both a protein (gelatin) and a glycosaminoglycan (chondroitin sulphate) component. To enable a permanent crosslinking, gelatin and chondroitin sulphate were first chemically modified using methacrylic anhydride. Hydrogels containing modified gelatin (gel-MOD) and/or chondroitin sulphate (CS-MOD) were cryogenically treated as optimised earlier for gel-MOD based hydrogels (Van Vlierberghe et al., Biomacromolecules 8:331-337, 2007). The cryogenic treatment leads to tubular pores for gel-MOD based systems. For CS-MOD based hydrogels and hydrogels containing both gel-MOD and CS-MOD, a curtain-like architecture (i.e. parallel plates) was observed, depending on the applied CS-MOD concentration. In our opinion, this is the first paper in which such well-defined scaffold architectures have been obtained without using rapid prototyping techniques.