The impact and recovery of asteroid 2008 TC(3).

In the absence of a firm link between individual meteorites and their asteroidal parent bodies, asteroids are typically characterized only by their light reflection properties, and grouped accordingly into classes. On 6 October 2008, a small asteroid was discovered with a flat reflectance spectrum in the 554-995 nm wavelength range, and designated 2008 TC(3) (refs 4-6). It subsequently hit the Earth. Because it exploded at 37 km altitude, no macroscopic fragments were expected to survive. Here we report that a dedicated search along the approach trajectory recovered 47 meteorites, fragments of a single body named Almahata Sitta, with a total mass of 3.95 kg. Analysis of one of these meteorites shows it to be an achondrite, a polymict ureilite, anomalous in its class: ultra-fine-grained and porous, with large carbonaceous grains. The combined asteroid and meteorite reflectance spectra identify the asteroid as F class, now firmly linked to dark carbon-rich anomalous ureilites, a material so fragile it was not previously represented in meteorite collections.

Demographic and occupational effects on the activity levels of normal subjects in the United Kingdom.

A study of activity levels, measured in steps per day, was made of 293 subjects from several parts of the United Kingdom. Each subject wore a pedometer adjacent to the hip for two weeks. The average number of steps taken each day over a two-week period was recorded together with additional details such as age and occupation. A general decline in activity with age was observed, which varied slightly for men and women. At twenty years of age the sample of men typically walked about 9,000 steps per day and women 9,200 steps per day, declining to 6,100 and 5,750 steps per day for men and women respectively at sixty years of age. Activity was observed to vary considerably from day to day and was more pronounced for men. The mean number of steps per day for a wide range of occupational groups varied from around 4,500 steps per day for retired persons to 12,700 steps per day for postmen. The activity data was re-analysed to remove the influence of age and gender. The activity of most occupational groups then fell within a relatively narrow range of approximately 7,700 to 8,850 steps per day. The exceptions to this were postmen, nurses and technicians, with averages of 12,750, 9,950 and 9,900 steps per day respectively, and software programmers averaging only 5,250 steps per day. Activity levels for groups of subjects from different parts of the United Kingdom were compared, including Leeds and Bradford, Belfast, Teesside, County Durham and Edinburgh. When the number of subjects in each group was sufficiently large with a wide spread of ages and occupational types, it was found that demography had little effect upon the level of activity. This study provides a substantial new database, based on the UK population. In addition, the assumption that one million cycles in vitro is equivalent to one year in vivo is well supported and relevant to simulator studies. (Hip International 2002; 1: 28-36).

Increased protein kinase C delta in mammary tumor cells: relationship to transformtion and metastatic progression.

Relatively little is known about the molecular mechanisms of tumor promotion/progression in mammary carcinogenesis. Increased protein kinase C (PKC) activity is known to promote tumor formation in several tissues; however, its role in mammary carcinogenesis is not yet known. To determine if individual PKCs may selectively regulate properties of mammary tumor cells, we compared PKC isozyme levels in mammary tumor cell lines with low, moderate and high metastatic potential. All three cell lines expressed alpha, delta, epsilon and zeta PKCs; however, PKC delta levels were relatively increased in the highly metastatic cells. To determine if increased PKC delta could contribute to promotion/progression, we overexpressed PKC delta in the low and moderately metastatic cell lines. PKC delta overexpression had no significant effect on growth of adherent cells, but significantly increased anchorage-independent growth. Conversely, expressing the regulatory domain of PKC delta (RD delta), a putative PKC delta inhibitory fragment, inhibited anchorage-independent growth. The efficacy of RD delta as a PKC delta inhibitor was demonstrated by showing that RD delta selectively interfered with PKC delta subcellular location and significantly interfered with phosphorylation of the PKC cytoskeletal substrate, adducin. PKC-dependent phosphorylation of cytoskeletal substrate proteins, such as adducin, provides a mechanistic link between increased PKC delta activity and phenotypic changes in cytoskeletal-dependent processes such as migration and attachment, two processes that are relevant to metastatic potential. The reciprocal growth effects of expressing PKC delta and RD delta as gain and loss of function constructs, respectively, provide strong evidence that PKC delta regulates processes important for anchorage-independent growth in these mammary tumor cells.

Spontaneous and thiazolidinedione-induced B6C3F1 mouse hemangiosarcomas exhibit low ras oncogene mutation frequencies.

Hemangiosarcomasare uncommon malignant endothelial cell tumors in humans and experimental animal species. The mechanisms giving rise to these tumors are poorly understood even though the histotypes are comparable between humans and rodents. Activating mutations in cellular ras protooncogenes have been detected in sporadic and chemically induced human and rodent hemangiosarcomas. Ras activation significantly modulates tumor angiogenesis, suggesting that mutations in ras genes might be causally related to vascular tumorigenesis. To more clearly define the role of ras in experimental vascular tumorigenesis, mutations in the Ki- and Ha-ras genes were characterized in 63 hemangiosarcomas that arose unexpectedly in control and treated B6C3F1 mice during a two-year carcinogenicity study of the thiazolidinedione troglitazone. DNA was extracted from paraffin sections of mouse hemangiosarcomas, control liver, or positive control hepatocellular carcinomas with defined mutations in the Ki- or Ha-ras genes. Exons 1 and 2 of the Ki- and Ha-ras genes were independently amplified using primer extension preamplification/locus-specific heminested PCR, and PCR amplicons were directly sequenced to identify mutations in codons 12, 13, or 61. Activating mutations were detected in 3 of 63 hemangiosarcomas: a single G-->A transition in the second position of Ki-ras codon 13 in a tumor from a treated animal and two G-->T transversions in the second position of Ha-ras codon 13, one in a single tumor from a control animal and one in a tumor from a treated animal. These mutations are consistent with endogenous mutagenesis arising from oxidative DNA damage. The low frequency of mutation (<5%) indicates that ras mutations did not contribute significantly to hemangiosarcoma development and suggests that mutational ras activation may not be a necessary step in vascular tumorigenesis in mice.

p53 is not inactivated in B6C3F1 mouse vascular tumors arising spontaneously or associated with long-term administration of the thiazolidinedione troglitazone.

Hemangiomas and hemangiosarcomas are uncommon in rodents and humans and, as such, the mechanisms giving rise to these tumors are poorly understood. Inactivating mutations in the p53 gene have been detected in sporadic and chemically induced human and rodent hemangiosarcomas. Additionally, experimental ablation of p53 function in mice by targeted gene disruption increases the incidence of both spontaneous and carcinogen-induced vascular tumors. These findings implicate p53 disruption in vascular tumor development. In this study, we characterized p53 inactivation immunocytochemically and by gene sequencing in a large number of vascular tumors that developed in B6C3F1 mice during a long-term (2-year) study of the thiazolidinedione troglitazone. For comparative purposes, a murine hemangiosarcoma induced by polyoma middle-T antigen, which transforms endothelial cells via a p53-independent mechanism, five spontaneous human hemangiosarcoma specimens, and species-specific positive control tissues were also evaluated by immunocytochemistry for p53 inactivation. While 20% of the human hemangiosarcomas and all positive control tissues expressed significant levels of nuclear p53, indicating functional inactivation of the protein, none of the 161 mouse vascular tumors studied expressed detectable p53 protein. The absence of inactivating mutations was confirmed in eight of the histologically most malignant mouse hemangiosarcomas by sequencing exons 5 to 8 of the p53 gene. These results demonstrate that p53 inactivation did not play a role in development of the vascular tumors seen in the long-term study of troglitazone, and they indicate that loss of p53 function is not essential for vascular tumor development in mice.

Genetic analysis of multiple loci in microsamples of fixed paraffin-embedded tissue.

Molecular analysis of alterations in genomic DNA is essential for understanding mechanisms by which chemical agents induce or modify tumor development. The assessment of microsatellite polymorphisms, loss of heterozygosity, mutations, and gene rearrangement allows specific comparisons of tumors to premalignant lesions or normal tissue or between similar tumors seen in laboratory species and humans. Utilization of these techniques is frequently limited by minute quantities of available tissue, often restricted to small formalin-fixed tumors or biopsies in paraffin blocks. To address these limitations, we have combined recently developed methodologies for selective recovery, amplification, and analysis of DNA. These techniques provide sufficient materials of high quality for analysis of DNA alterations in microscale amounts of starting material. By combining whole genome amplification through primer extension preamplification with locus-specific heminested PCR, we are able to analyze multiple genetic loci from as little as 1 mm2 of a 3-micron-thick formalin-fixed paraffin section. From 10 to greater than 100 loci can be analyzed per tissue section, and locus-specific PCR products may be further evaluated by a variety of techniques (e.g., SSCP, sequencing). Integrating these methodologies into situations where evaluation of very small tissue samples is necessary provides a powerful approach for elucidating molecular events that may be causally related to chemically induced cellular transformation and tumorigenesis.

Identification of a major protein kinase C-binding protein and substrate in rat embryo fibroblasts. Decreased expression in transformed cells.

We have used an interaction cloning strategy to isolate cDNAs for sequences that interact with protein kinase C (Chapline, C., Ramsay, K., Klauck, T., and Jaken, S. (1993) J. Biol. Chem. 268,6858-6861). In this paper, we report a novel sequence, clone 72, isolated according to this method. Clone 72 has a 4.8-kilobase pair open reading frame; antibodies to clone 72 recognize a >200-kDa protein in cell and tissue extracts. Clone 72 message and protein are detected in a variety of tissues. Immunoprecipitation studies demonstrate that clone 72 is the major >200-kDa binding protein described previously in REF52 fibroblasts (Hyatt, S. L., Liao, L., Aderem, A., Nairn, A., and Jaken, S. (1994) Cell Growth & Differ. 5, 495-502). Expression of clone 72 message and protein are decreased in progressively transformed REF52 cells. Since clone 72 is both a protein kinase C (PKC)-binding protein and substrate, decreased levels of clone 72 may influence both the subcellular location of endogenous PKCs as well as signaling events associated with clone 72 phosphorylation. Our results emphasize that the role of PKCs in carcinogenesis may involve several factors, including the quantity and location of the PKCs isozymes and their downstream targets.

Differential dependence of the tumorigenicity of chemically transformed rat liver epithelial cells on autocrine production of transforming growth factor alpha.

The tumorigenic phenotype in rat liver epithelial cells overexpressing c-myc may depend on a transforming growth factor (TGF)-alpha/epidermal growth factor receptor autocrine loop (L. W. Lee et al., Cancer Res., 51: 5238-5244, 1991). In the present study, we have used constitutive sense and antisense TGF-alpha expression vectors to modify TGF-alpha production in carcinogen-transformed clonal derivatives of a rat liver epithelial cell line, WB-F344, that variably express c-myc, endogenous TGF-alpha, and tumorigenicity. Transgene-mediated TGF-alpha protein production was elevated 2- to 9-fold in derivatives of a low c-myc-expressing transformed cell line, GN4, and 35-fold in a derivative of a high c-myc-expressing cell line, GN6. Although the GN4- and GN6-derived cell lines expressed functional EGF receptor and steady-state c-myc mRNA levels that were comparable to their respective parental cell lines, increased TGF-alpha expression did not increase the tumorigenicity of the derivatives relative to the parental cell lines. Similarly, in vitro growth characteristics of the GN4- and GN6-derived cell lines were not markedly altered by increased autocrine TGF-alpha production. Additionally, GN4, GN6, and their derivatives were, for the most part, unresponsive to exogenously applied TGF-alpha in vitro. In contrast, antisense TGF-alpha RNA expression significantly suppressed endogenous TGF-alpha production in a high c-myc-expressing, high TGF-alpha-expressing, highly tumorigenic clonal line, GP9; this suppression resulted in lowered steady-state c-myc levels and attenuated in vitro growth. Antisense-mediated suppression of all of these in vitro phenotypes in GP9 was reversed by exogenous TGF-alpha. The latency of tumor formation by the antisense derivative of cell line GP9 was significantly lengthened (> 3-fold) relative to the time required for tumor formation by its parental cell line. These results demonstrate that a TGF-alpha/epidermal growth factor receptor autocrine loop may be necessary for exaggerated in vitro and in vivo growth of some transformed rat liver epithelial cells (e.g., GP9); however, the autocrine loop is not generally sufficient to support tumorigenicity, even in transformed clonal lines expressing elevated levels of c-myc.

Eicosanoids released following inhibition of the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ pump stimulate Ca2+ efflux in the perfused rat liver.

In the isolated perfused rat liver 2,5-di(tert-butyl)hydroquinone (tBuHQ), a selective inhibitor of the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ pump, induces a prolonged glucose output and stimulates Ca2+ efflux. The present study shows that tBuHQ depleted the hormone-sensitive Ca2+ pool in the perfused liver, abolishing the vasopressin- or phenylephrine-induced Ca2+ efflux. The effects of tBuHQ were reversible, since the response to these agonists gradually returned within 1 hr of perfusion, and protein synthesis was not required for this recovery. Since tBuHQ does not cause Ca2+ efflux from isolated hepatocytes, we examined the mechanism responsible for the tBuHQ-induced Ca2+ efflux observed in the intact liver. The cyclooxygenase inhibitor indomethacin prevented the Ca2+ extrusion stimulated by tBuHQ, but not that induced by vasopressin. During infusion of tBuHQ there was a 9-fold increase in the concentration of thromboxane B2 in the perfusate. The Ca2+ efflux response to tBuHQ was inhibited by the thromboxane/prostaglandin endoperoxide receptor antagonist, L-655,240 (3-[1-(4-chlorobenzyl)-5-fluoro-3-methyl-indol-2-yl]2,2-dimethylpropa noic acid) in the absence of any effect on thromboxane B2 release. Thus, the inhibition of the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ pump by tBuHQ results in a rise in the cytosolic Ca2+ concentration in non-parenchymal cells, leading to the formation of cyclooxygenase products. The released eicosanoids, in turn, stimulate Ca2+ efflux from hepatocytes.

Mobilization of the hormone-sensitive calcium pool increases hepatocyte tight junctional permeability in the perfused rat liver.

Hepatocyte tight junctional permeability has been shown to be regulated by hormones that exert their effects via phospholipase C activation. However, the precise transduction pathway involved in this effect is not known. The present study has employed the selective inhibitor of microsomal Ca2+ sequestration, 2,5-di(tert-butyl)-1,4-benzohydroquinone (tBuBHQ), to examine the effect of the mobilization of the endoplasmic reticular Ca2+ pool on tight junctional permeability in the perfused rat liver. Infusion of tBuBHQ followed by a bolus infusion of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) resulted in a significant increase in the first peak of biliary HRP, a measure of junctional permeability, whereas transcellular (vesicular) transport of HRP was not affected. Therefore, we conclude that the effect of hormones on tight junctional permeability is mediated, at least in part, by the mobilization of intracellular Ca2+.

Receptor-operated calcium influx in rat hepatocytes. Identification and characterization using manganese.

Agonist-stimulated divalent cation entry was studied in fura-2-loaded hepatocytes. In the presence of extracellular Mn2+, the Ca2(+)-mobilizing hormone vasopressin produced a severalfold stimulation of the basal rate of fura-2 fluorescence quenching as a result of Mn2+ influx; this effect was blocked by the presence of Ni2+ in the incubation medium. Half-maximum and maximum stimulation of Mn2+ influx was observed with 0.1 and 0.8 nM vasopressin, respectively. Agonist-stimulated Mn2+ influx was also seen with angiotensin II, ATP, phenylephrine, and the combination of AlCl3 and NaF. The stimulation of Mn2+ influx did not occur immediately after addition of Ca2(+)-mobilizing agents, but was characterized by a latency period of 20-30 s. In contrast to vasopressin, glucagon did not stimulate Mn2+ influx into hepatocytes, but produced both a 3-fold enhancement of the rate of vasopressin-stimulated Mn2+ entry and the abolishment of the latency period. The effects of glucagon were mimicked by forskolin and dibutyryl cAMP. Pretreatment of hepatocytes with pertussis toxin or depolarization of the cells altered neither the basal rate of Mn2+ entry nor the ability of vasopressin to stimulate this rate. Emptying of the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive Ca2+ store by treatment with 2,5-di-(tert-butyl)-1,4-benzohydroquinone (tBuBHQ) did not enhance Mn2+ entry into hepatocytes; however, exposure of the cells to tBuBHQ for 2 min markedly enhanced the ability of vasopressin, alone or in combination with glucagon, to increase the rate of Mn2+ influx. Furthermore, pretreatment with tBuBHQ for 2 min abolished the latency of vasopressin-stimulated Mn2+ influx. It is concluded that Ca2(+)-mobilizing hormones stimulate Ca2+ influx in hepatocytes, possibly through receptor-operated Ca2+ channels. The stimulation of divalent cation entry is transduced by a G protein, and the rate of influx appears to be controlled both by the intracellular level of cAMP and the empty state of an intracellular Ca2+ pool that may be inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-insensitive.

Release of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum is not the mechanism for bile acid-induced cholestasis and hepatotoxicity in the intact rat liver.

The hypothesis that monohydroxy bile acids exert their cholestatic and hepatotoxic effects via a sustained elevation of cytosolic [Ca2+] was tested in the isolated perfused rat liver. Infusion of the specific inhibitor of microsomal Ca2+ sequestration, 2,5-di(tert-butyl)-1,4-benzohydroquinone (tBuBHQ) (25 microM for 10 min) produced efflux of Ca2+ from the liver and a sustained (20 min) increase in cytosolic [Ca2+] as indicated by the threefold increase in hepatic glucose output. Release of the endoplasmic reticular Ca2+ pool was demonstrated by the complete abolition of vasopressin- and phenylephrine-induced Ca2+ exchange between the liver and perfusate. Despite the profound perturbation of intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis produced by tBuBHQ, there was no decrease in bile flow and no evidence of hepatocellular injury (for 60 min), as indicated by lactate dehydrogenase release. In contrast, lithocholic acid (25 microM for 10 or 30 min) or taurolithocholic acid (5 microM for 10 or 30 min) produced an 80-90% inhibition of bile flow and a progressive increase in perfusate lactate dehydrogenase activity. During and after bile acid infusion, there was no change in Ca2+ fluxes between liver and perfusate, no stimulation of glucose output from the liver, and hormone-stimulated Ca2+ responses were preserved. It is concluded that the mechanisms for bile acid-induced cholestasis and hepatotoxicity in the intact liver are not attributable to changes in intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis, and especially not to prolonged release or depletion of Ca2+ sequestered in the endoplasmic reticulum.

2,5-Di(tert-butyl)-1,4-benzohydroquinone--a novel mobilizer of the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive Ca2+ pool.

Isolated hepatocytes and the isolated perfused rat liver have been used to study the alterations of cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) produced by 2,5-di(tert-butyl)-1,4-benzohydroquinone (tBuBHQ), a potent inhibitor of hepatic microsomal Ca2+ sequestration (Moore, G.A., McConkey, D.J., Kass, G.E.N., O'Brien, P.J. and Orrenius, S. FEBS Lett., 224, 331-336), (1987). Addition of tBuBHQ to isolated hepatocytes caused a rapid increase in [Ca2+]i which was similar in magnitude to the [Ca2+]i elevation induced by the Ca2+ mobilizing hormone, vasopressin. In contrast with vasopressin which caused a Ca2+ transient, tBuBHQ elevated [Ca2+]i to a new steady state that was maintained for up to 15-20 min. When vasopressin was administered during the tBuBHQ-induced period of elevated [Ca2+]i, [Ca2+]i rapidly returned to basal levels. Similarly, if vasopressin was administered just prior to tBuBHQ, the resultant tBuBHQ-dependent change in [Ca2+]i was transient, and not sustained. The hydroquinone mobilized the same intracellular Ca2+ pool as inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate, but tBuBHQ did not produce any detectable inositol polyphosphate accumulation. tBuBHQ stimulated glucose release from perifused hepatocytes, mimicking the effect of vasopressin. In the perfused liver, tBuBHQ infusion produced a single, slow and prolonged release of Ca2+ into the perfusate and inhibition of subsequent vasopressin-induced Ca2+ effluxes. Inhibition of the response to vasopressin was reversed over time, and closely correlated with the extent of inhibition of both Ca2+ sequestration and (Ca2+-Mg2+)-ATPase activity in microsomes isolated from the isolated perfused liver.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Ca2(+)-mobilizing hormones stimulate Ca2+ efflux from hepatocytes.

Treatment of hepatocytes with 2,5-di-(tert-butyl)-1,4-benzohydroquinone (tBuBHQ), a novel mobilizer of the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive Ca2+ pool, produces a sustained elevation of [Ca2+]i (Kass, G. E. N., Duddy, S. K., and Orrenius, S. (1989) J. Biol. Chem. 264, 15192-15198). Exposure of hepatocytes to the Ca2(+)-mobilizing hormones, vasopressin, angiotensin II, or ATP following [Ca2+]i elevation by tBuBHQ produced a rapid return of [Ca2+]i to basal or near basal levels. Release of the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive Ca2+ pool by tBuBHQ following pretreatment with vasopressin or angiotensin II resulted in a [Ca2+]i transient and not the sustained [Ca2+]i elevation observed in the absence of the Ca2(+)-mobilizing hormones. The G-protein activator, NaF plus AlCl3, mimicked both effects of the Ca2(+)-mobilizing hormones on [Ca2+]i. The mechanism for Ca2+ removal from the cytosol by Ca2(+)-mobilizing hormones did not involve cyclic nucleotides nor did it require protein kinase C activation or cyclo- and lipoxygenase-dependent metabolites of arachidonic acid. Furthermore, the hormone-mediated decrease in [Ca2+]i did not involve the pertussis toxin-sensitive Gi-protein. Removal of the tBuBHQ-mobilized Ca2+ from the cytosol of hepatocytes by Ca2(+)-mobilizing hormones was mediated by stimulation of a Ca2+ efflux pathway. Thus, in addition to initiating [Ca2+]i transients by releasing Ca2+ from the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive Ca2+ store and stimulating Ca2+ influx, Ca2(+)-mobilizing hormones also regulate the termination of the [Ca2+]i transient by stimulating a Ca2+ efflux pathway.

2,5-Di-(tert-butyl)-1,4-benzohydroquinone rapidly elevates cytosolic Ca2+ concentration by mobilizing the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive Ca2+ pool.

2,5-Di-(tert-butyl)-1,4-benzohydroquinone (tBuBHQ), a potent inhibitor of liver microsomal ATP-dependent Ca2+ sequestration (Moore, G. A., McConkey, D. J., Kass, G. E. N., O'Brien, P. J., and Orrenius, S. (1987) FEBS Lett. 224, 331-336), produced a concentration-dependent, rapid increase in cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in isolated rat hepatocytes (EC50 = 1-2 microM). The amplitude of the [Ca2+]i increase was essentially identical with that produced by vasopressin, but the tBuBHQ-stimulated [Ca2+]i increase remained sustained for 15-20 min. Vasopressin added 2-3 min after tBuBHQ caused [Ca2+]i to rapidly return to basal levels; however, tBuBHQ added after vasopressin resulted in a Ca2+ transient rather than a sustained [Ca2+]i elevation. Ca2+ influx was not stimulated in tBuBHQ-treated hepatocytes, but was markedly enhanced upon addition of vasopressin. Depletion of the endoplasmic reticular Ca2+ pool by the addition of vasopressin to hepatocytes incubated in low Ca2+ medium virtually abolished the tBuBHQ-mediated [Ca2+]i rise and vice versa. In saponin-permeabilized hepatocytes, tBuBHQ released Ca2+ from the same nonmitochondrial, ATP-dependent Ca2+ pool which was released by inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate. Furthermore, tBuBHQ-induced Ca2+ release in saponin-permeabilized cells was not inhibited by neomycin, and tBuBHQ did not produce any apparent accumulation of inositol phosphates in intact hepatocytes. The rate of passive efflux of Ca2+ from Ca2+-loaded hepatic microsomes was unaltered by tBuBHQ. Thus, tBuBHQ inhibits ATP-dependent Ca2+ sequestration via a direct effect on the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ pump, resulting in net Ca2+ release and elevation of [Ca2+]i. Taken together, our results show that in the absence of hormonal stimuli, excess Ca2+ is only slowly cleared from the hepatocyte cytosol, indicating that the basal rate of Ca2+ removal by the plasma membrane Ca2+ pump and mitochondria is slow. Furthermore, Ca2+-mobilizing hormones appear to stimulate an active process of Ca2+ removal from hepatocyte cytosol which does not depend on re-uptake into the endoplasmic reticulum.

Activation of hepatocyte protein kinase C by redox-cycling quinones.

The effects of quinone-generated active oxygen species on rat hepatocyte protein kinase C were investigated. The specific activity of cytosolic protein kinase C was increased 2-3-fold in hepatocytes incubated with the redox-cycling quinones, menadione, duroquinone or 2,3-dimethoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone, without alterations in particulate protein kinase C specific activity or Ca2+- and lipid-independent kinase activities. Redox-cycling quinones did not stimulate translocation of protein kinase C; however, activated protein kinase C was redistributed from cytosol to the particulate fraction when quinone-treated hepatocytes were exposed to 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA). Quinone treatment did not alter cytosolic phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate (PDBu) binding capacity, and the cytosol of both control and quinone-treated hepatocytes exhibited a Kd for PDBu binding of 2 nM. Quinone-mediated activation of cytosolic protein kinase C was reversed by incubation with 10 mM-beta-mercaptoethanol, dithiothreitol or GSH, at 4 degrees C for 24 h. Furthermore, protein kinase C specific activity in control cytosol incubated in air increased by over 100% within 3 h; this increase was reversed by thiol-reducing agents. Similarly, incubation of partially-purified rat brain protein kinase C in air, or with low concentrations of GSSG in the presence of GSH, resulted in a 2-2.5-fold increase in Ca2+- and lipid-dependent kinase activity. In contrast with the effects of the redox-cycling quinones, when hepatocytes were treated with the thiol agents N-ethylmaleimide (NEM), p-benzoquinone (pBQ) or p-chloromercuribenzoic acid (pCMB), the cytosolic Ca2+- and lipid-dependent kinase activity was significantly inhibited, but the particulate-associated protein kinase C activity was unaffected. The Ca2+- and lipid-independent kinase activity of both the cytosolic and particulate fractions was significantly stimulated by NEM, but was unaffected by pBQ and pCMB. These results show that hepatocyte cytosolic protein kinase C is activated to a high-Vmax form by quinone-generated active oxygen species, and this effect is due to a reduction-sensitive modification of the thiol/disulphide status of protein kinase C.

Mechanistic studies on the DDT-induced inhibition of intercellular communication.

Two structurally unrelated compounds, 1,1'-(2,2,2-trichloroethylidene) bis(4-chlorobenzene) (DDT) and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), are both potent inhibitors of cell-cell communication in vitro as well as tumour promoters in vivo. There is evidence that TPA acts via a specific receptor mechanism involving activation of protein kinase C (pkC). The mechanism of action of DDT has been discussed in terms of membrane perturbation, increased intracellular calcium, interaction with calmodulin and decreased cAMP levels. In the present study the objective was to examine the potential role of pkC activation in DDT-induced inhibition of intercellular communication in cultured cells. The V79 metabolic cooperation assay was used for measuring intercellular communication. Furthermore, the effects of DDT on the activity of partially purified pkC from V79 cells was measured, as was the interaction of DDT with the phorbol ester/DAG-binding site on the pkC enzyme. Results from the biochemical studies showed that DDT neither activates pkC nor binds to the phorbol ester/DAG-binding site, as measured by displacement of PDBU binding. Using the metabolic cooperation assay it was demonstrated that pretreatment with TPA made cells refractory, i.e. a second application of TPA did not inhibit cell-cell communication. DDT added to cells down-regulated with TPA inhibited cell-cell communication, even though these cells were refractive to TPA. This result further supports the hypothesis that DDT and TPA inhibit intercellular communication primarily by different pathways. At non-cytotoxic concentrations, pkC inhibitors (H7, W7 and palmitoyl carnitine) did not affect the TPA- or DDT-induced inhibition of cell-cell communication in the V79 metabolic cooperation assay. Quercetin, a pkC inhibitor which has been reported to eliminate DDT- or TPA-induced inhibition of intercellular communication, was investigated in an in vivo study that measured promotion of enzyme-altered foci in DEN-treated rat liver. Quercetin co-administered with DDT did not act as an antipromoter.

Studies on the anti-inflammatory activity of ebselen. Ebselen interferes with granulocyte oxidative burst by dual inhibition of NADPH oxidase and protein kinase C?

Ebselen (PZ51, 2-phenyl-1,2-benzoisoselenazol-3-(2H)-one) was shown to be an inhibitor of human granulocyte oxidative burst stimulated by phorbol myristate acetate (IC50 25 microM). Estimation of the primary oxygen metabolites of the burst was complicated by the redox chemistry of Ebselen. Ebselen inhibited NADPH-stimulated superoxide generation by a partially purified NADPH oxidase preparation with an IC50 of 0.5-1.0 microM. Ebselen was also shown to inhibit the activity of partially purified Ca2+- and phospholipid-dependent protein kinase C (IC50 ca. 0.5 microM). Phorbol ester-stimulated phosphorylation of protein in intact cells was inhibited by Ebselen (IC50 ca. 50 microM). These pharmacodynamic properties of Ebselen are discussed in terms of its anti-inflammatory activity in vivo. The findings are also discussed in terms of Ebselen's known ability to interact with sulfhydryl components of cells, particularly critical thiol components of the enzymes studied.

Alteration of precocene II-induced hepatotoxicity by modulation of hepatic glutathione levels.

Precocene II (6,7-dimethoxy-2,2-dimethyl-2H-benzo[b]pyran), an insect growth regulator that is structurally related to several naturally occurring carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic alkenylbenzenes, is genotoxic and produces hepatic centrolobular necrosis in rats. This investigation was conducted to evaluate the effects of modulation of hepatic glutathione levels on the toxicity of precocene II. Administration of a toxic dose of precocene II (175 mg/kg) to male Sprague-Dawley rats rapidly depleted hepatic GSH, produced histopathological changes in the liver, and induced increases in serum aminotransferase activity. Concurrent administration of the cysteine pro-drug L-2-oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (OTC) prevented these toxic effects of precocene II. In contrast, pretreatment of rats with DL-buthionine-SR-sulfoximine (BSO), an inhibitor of glutathione synthesis, potentiated the toxicity of an otherwise non-toxic dose of precocene II (100 mg/kg). These results indicate that glutathione is important for protection from precocene II-induced hepatotoxicity.

2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin kills immature thymocytes by Ca2+-mediated endonuclease activation.

Suspensions of thymocytes from young rats were incubated with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), which resulted in a sustained increase in cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration followed by DNA fragmentation and loss of cell viability. Both the Ca2+ increase and DNA fragmentation were prevented in cells treated with the inhibitor of protein synthesis, cycloheximide, and DNA fragmentation and cell killing were not detected when cells were incubated in a "Ca2+-free" medium or pretreated with high concentrations of the calcium probe, quin-2 tetraacetoxymethyl ester. These results indicate that TCDD can kill immature thymocytes by initiating a suicide process similar to that previously described for glucocorticoid hormones.