Comparison of the Mechanical Properties of a Conjugated Polymer Deposited Using Spin Coating, Interfacial Spreading, Solution Shearing, and Spray Coating.

The mechanical properties of π-conjugated (semiconducting) polymers are a key determinant of the stability and manufacturability of devices envisioned for applications in energy and healthcare. These properties─including modulus, extensibility, toughness, and strength─are influenced by the morphology of the solid film, which depends on the method of processing. To date, the majority of work done on the mechanical properties of semiconducting polymers has been performed on films deposited by spin coating, a process not amenable to the manufacturing of large-area films. Here, we compare the mechanical properties of thin films of regioregular poly(3-heptylthiophene) (P3HpT) produced by three scalable deposition processes─interfacial spreading, solution shearing, and spray coating─and spin coating (as a reference). Our results lead to four principal conclusions. (1) Spray-coated films have poor mechanical robustness due to defects and inhomogeneous thickness. (2) Sheared films show the highest modulus, strength, and toughness, likely resulting from a decrease in free volume. (3) Interfacially spread films show a lower modulus but greater fracture strain than spin-coated films. (4) The trends observed in the tensile behavior of films cast using different deposition processes held true for both P3HpT and poly(3-butylthiophene) (P3BT), an analogue with a higher glass transition temperature. Grazing incidence X-ray diffraction and ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy reveal many notable differences in the solid structures of P3HpT films generated by all four processes. While these morphological differences provide possible explanations for differences in the electronic properties (hole mobility), we find that the mechanical properties of the film are dominated by the free volume and surface topography. In field-effect transistors, spread films had mobilities more than 1 magnitude greater than any other films, likely due to a relatively high proportion of edge-on texturing and long coherence length in the crystalline domains. Overall, spread films offer the best combination of deformability and charge-transport properties.

Semiconducting polymer blends that exhibit stable charge transport at high temperatures.

Although high-temperature operation (i.e., beyond 150°C) is of great interest for many electronics applications, achieving stable carrier mobilities for organic semiconductors at elevated temperatures is fundamentally challenging. We report a general strategy to make thermally stable high-temperature semiconducting polymer blends, composed of interpenetrating semicrystalline conjugated polymers and high glass-transition temperature insulating matrices. When properly engineered, such polymer blends display a temperature-insensitive charge transport behavior with hole mobility exceeding 2.0 cm2/V·s across a wide temperature range from room temperature up to 220°C in thin-film transistors.

Class III delocalization and exciton coupling in a bimetallic bis-ligand radical complex.

The geometric and electronic structure of an oxidized bimetallic Ni complex incorporating two redox-active Schiff-base ligands connected via a 1,2-phenylene linker has been investigated and compared to a monomeric analogue. Information from UV/Vis/NIR spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, electrochemistry, and density functional theory (DFT) calculations provides important information on the locus of oxidation for the bimetallic complex. The neutral bimetallic complex is conformationally dynamic at room temperature, which complicates characterization of the oxidized forms. Comparison to an oxidized monomer analogue 1 provides critical insight into the electronic structure of the oxidized bimetallic complex 2. Oxidation of 1 provides [1˙](+), which is characterized as a fully delocalized ligand radical complex; the spectroscopic signature of this derivative includes an intense NIR band at 4500 cm(-1). Oxidation of 2 to the bis-oxidized form affords a bis-ligand radical species [2˙˙](2+). Variable temperature EPR spectroscopy of [2˙˙](2+) shows no evidence of coupling, and the triplet and broken symmetry solutions afforded by theoretical calculations are essentially isoenergetic. [2˙˙](2+) is thus best described as incorporating two non-interacting ligand radicals. Interestingly, the intense NIR intervalence charge transfer band observed for the delocalized ligand-radical [1˙](+) exhibits exciton splitting in [2˙˙](2+), due to coupling of the monomer transition dipoles in the enforced oblique dimer geometry. Evaluating the splitting of the intense intervalence charge transfer band can thus provide significant geometric and electronic information in less rigid bis-ligand radical systems. Addition of excess pyridine to [2˙˙](2+) results in a shift in the oxidation locus from a bis-ligand radical species to the Ni(III) /Ni(III) derivative [2(py)4](2+), demonstrating that the ligand system can incorporate significant bulk in the axial positions.

Double oxidation localizes spin in a Ni bis-phenoxyl radical complex.

The electronic structure of a doubly oxidized Ni salen complex NiSal(tBu) (Sal(tBu) = N,N'-bis(3,5-di-tert-butylsalicylidene)-1,2-cyclohexane-(1R,2R)-diamine) has been investigated by both experimental and theoretical methods. The doubly oxidized product was probed by resonance Raman spectroscopy, UV-vis-NIR, and EPR to determine the locus of oxidation as well as the spectroscopic signature of the complex. It was determined that double oxidation of NiSal(tBu) affords a bis-ligand radical species in solution via the presence of phenoxyl radical bands at ν(7a) (1504 cm(-1)) and ν(8a) (1579 cm(-1)) in the Raman spectrum, and the loss of the intense NIR transition reported for the mono-radical complex (Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2007, 46, 5198). Spectroscopic experiments, complemented by DFT calculations, show that the two radical spins are predominantly localized on the phenolate moieties, in opposition to the extensive delocalization over the ligand framework observed for the mono-radical analogue.

Radical localization in a series of symmetric Ni(II) complexes with oxidized salen ligands.

Square-planar nickel(II) complexes of salen ligands, N,N'-bis(3-tert-butyl-(5R)-salicylidene)-1,2-cyclohexanediamine), in which R=tert-butyl (1), OMe (2), and NMe(2) (3), were prepared and the electronic structure of the one-electron-oxidized species [1-3](+·) was investigated in solution. Cyclic voltammograms of [1-3] showed two quasi-reversible redox waves that were assigned to the oxidation of the phenolate moieties to phenoxyl radicals. From the difference between the first and second redox potentials, the trend of electronic delocalization 1(+·) >2(+·) >3(+·) was obtained. The cations [1-3](+·) exhibited isotropic g tensors of 2.045, 2.023, and 2.005, respectively, reflecting a lower metal character of the singly occupied molecular orbital (SOMO) for systems that involve strongly electron-donating substituents. Pulsed-EPR spectroscopy showed a single population of equivalent imino nitrogen atoms for 1(+·), whereas two distinct populations were observed for 2(+·). The resonance Raman spectra of 2(+·) and 3(+·) displayed the ν(8a) band of the phenoxyl radicals at 1612 cm(-1), as well as the ν(8a) bands of the phenolates. In contrast, the Raman spectrum of 1(+·) exhibited the ν(8a) band at 1602 cm(-1), without any evidence of the phenolate peak. Previous work showed an intense near-infrared (NIR) electronic transition for 1(+·) (Δν(1/2) =660 cm(-1), ε=21,700 M(-1) cm(-1)), indicating that the electron hole is fully delocalized over the ligand. The broader and moderately intense NIR transition of 2(+·) (Δν(1/2) =1250 cm(-1) , ε=12,800 M(-1) cm(-1)) suggests a certain degree of ligand-radical localization, whereas the very broad NIR transition of 3(+·) (Δν(1/2) =8630 cm(-1), ε=2550 M(-1) cm(-1)) indicates significant localization of the ligand radical on a single ring. Therefore, 1(+·) is a Class III mixed-valence complex, 2(+·) is Class II/III borderline complex, and 3(+·) is a Class II complex according to the Robin-Day classification method. By employing the Coulomb-attenuated method (CAM-B3LYP) we were able to predict the electron-hole localization and NIR transitions in the series, and show that the energy match between the redox-active ligand and the metal d orbitals is crucial for delocalization of the radical SOMO.

Non-innocent ligand behaviour of a bimetallic Cu complex employing a bridging catecholate.

The geometric and electronic structure of a bimetallic Cu Schiff-base complex and its one-electron oxidized form have been investigated. The two salen units in the neutral complex 1 are linked via a bridging catecholate function, and the coupling between the two Cu(II) d(9) centres was determined to be weakly antiferromagnetic on the basis of solid-state magnetic studies (J = -3 cm(-1)), and variable-temperature electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) (J = -3 cm(-1)). Theoretical calculations (DFT) were in agreement with the experimental results (J = -7 cm(-1)), and provided insight into the coupling mechanism for the neutral system. One-electron oxidation provided [1](+) which was observed to have limited stability in solution. The oxidized complex was determined to be a ligand radical species in solution, with the electron hole potentially localized on the redox-active dioxolene, the phenolate ligands, or delocalized over the entire ligand system. Electrochemical experiments and UV-vis-NIR spectroscopy, in combination with density functional theory (DFT) calculations, provided insight into the locus of oxidation and the degree of delocalization in this system. The ligand radical for [1˙](+) was determined experimentally to be localized on the dioxolene bridge with a small amount of spin density on the outer phenolate moieties predicted by the calculations. This assignment was aided via comparison to data for the Ni analogue (Inorg. Chem., 2011, 50, 6746). The resonance Raman spectrum of [1˙](+) (λ(ex) = 413 nm) in CH(2)Cl(2) solution clearly exhibited a new band at 1308 cm(-1) in comparison to 1, supporting semiquinone formation. Variable-temperature EPR on the three-spin system [1˙](+) did not provide definitive information on the coupling interaction, possibly due to a very small difference in energy between the S = 3/2 and S = 1/2 states and/or a very small zero-field splitting, in combination with significant line-broadening. The data is consistent with a description of the overall electronic structure of [1˙](+) as a bimetallic Cu(II) complex with a bridge-localized semiquinone ligand radical species.

Non-innocent ligand behavior of a bimetallic Ni Schiff-base complex containing a bridging catecholate.

The geometric and electronic structure of a bimetallic Ni Schiff-base complex and its one-electron oxidized form have been investigated in the solid state and in solution. The two salen units in the neutral complex 1 are linked via a bridging catecholate function. The one-electron oxidized form [1](+) was determined to exist as a ligand radical species in solution, with the electron hole potentially localized on the redox-active dioxolene, the phenolate ligands, or delocalized over the entire ligand system. Electrochemical experiments and UV-vis-NIR spectroscopy, in combination with density functional theory (DFT) calculations, provide insight into the locus of oxidation and the degree of delocalization in this system. The one-electron hole for [1](+) was determined experimentally to be localized on the dioxolene bridge with a small amount of spin density on the outer phenolate moieties predicted by the calculations. The resonance Raman spectrum of [1](+) (λ(ex) = 413 nm) in CH(2)Cl(2) solution clearly exhibited a new band at 1315 cm(-1) in comparison to 1, which is predicted to be a combination of dioxolene ring and C-O bond stretching modes, consistent with oxidation of the bridging moiety in [1](+). Analysis of the NIR bands for [1](+), in association with time-dependent DFT calculations, suggests that the low energy bands are ligand to ligand charge transfer transitions from the terminal phenolates to the central dioxolene unit. In combination, this data is consistent with a description of the overall electronic structure of [1](+) as a bridge-localized semiquinone ligand radical species. This is in contrast to the mixed-valence ground state description for many one-electron oxidized Ni salen monomer systems, and analysis in terms of intervalence charge transfer (IVCT) theory.

Influence of the chelate effect on the electronic structure of one-electron oxidized group 10 metal(II)-(disalicylidene)diamine complexes.

The neutral and one-electron oxidized group 10 metal, Ni(II), Pd(II) and Pt(II), six-membered chelate Salpn (Salpn = N,N'-bis(3,5-di-tert-butylsalicylidene)-1,3-propanediamine) complexes have been investigated and compared to the five-membered chelate Salen (N,N'-bis(3,5-di-tert-butylsalicylidene)-1,2-ethanediamine) and Salcn (N,N'-bis(3,5-di-tert-butylsalicylidene)-1,2-cyclohexane-(1R,2R)-diamine) complexes. Reaction of the Salpn complexes with 1 equivalent of AgSbF(6) affords the oxidized complexes which exist as ligand radical species in solution and in the solid state. The solid state structures of the oxidized complexes have been determined by X-ray crystal structure analysis. While the Ni and Pt analogues exhibit an essentially symmetric coordination sphere contraction upon oxidation, the oxidized Pd derivative exhibits an asymmetric metal binding environment demonstrating at least partial ligand radical localization. In comparison to the oxidized Salen and Salcn complexes, the propyl backbone of the Salpn complexes leads to a larger deviation from a planar geometry in the solid state. The electronic structure of the oxidized Salpn complexes was further probed by UV-vis-NIR measurements, electrochemistry, EPR spectroscopy, and theoretical calculations. The intense NIR band for the one-electron oxidized Salpn complexes shifts to lower energy in comparison to the 5-membered chelate analogues, which is attributed to lower metal d(xz) character in the ß-LUMO for the Salpn series. The reactivity of the one-electron oxidized Salpn complexes with exogenous ligands was also studied. In the presence of pyridine, the oxidized Ni analogue exhibits a shift in the locus of oxidation to a Ni(III) species. The oxidized PtSalpn complex rapidly decomposes in the presence of pyridine, even at low temperature. Interestingly, electronic and EPR spectroscopy suggests that the addition of pyridine to the oxidized Pd analogue results in initial dissociation of the phenoxyl radical ligand, likely due to the increased flexibility of the propyl backbone.