Campus courtship behavior and fear of human immunodeficiency virus infection by university students.

Data were collected by telephone from a random sample of 762 students at the University of Northern Colorado to examine students' fear of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and their suggested approaches to prevent the spread of the disease. Of the 762 students interviewed, 177 (24.1%) believed that HIV/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) was a threat to socialization on campus. Fourteen percent of the female students considered HIV/AIDS to be a threat compared with 10.1% of their male counterparts. Among all interviewees, 573 (76.7%) believed HIV/AIDS was a threat to romance at the university. Statistically significant association was found between the perceived fear of HIV/AIDS and gender. With regard to actual sexual intercourse, 86.4% of the students believed that HIV/AIDS was a major threat compared with 13.6% who did not. The association between the perception about HIV/AIDS as a threat to on-campus sexual intercourse and gender was statistically significant. Of the entire sample, 69.3% suggested abstinence as an approach to avoid HIV infection. Slightly more than 24% suggested condom use. Eighteen (10.8%) students advised that sexual contact should be only with a trusted partner. More information about HIV/AIDS should be provided to all students, especially women, in institutions of higher learning. More information can reduce the fear associated with this deadly disease.

Pediculosis capitis among urban school children in Ilorin, Nigeria.

A survey of 6882 primary school children living in Ilorin, Nigeria revealed that 3.7% of the children were infested with Pediculus humanus capitis. Infestation rate among the children in the Islamic community was 4.1%, whereas in the Christian area, the infestation rate was 3%. Girls had a higher infestation rate (5.6%) than boys (2.1%). The highest infestation rate (28.4%) was observed among girls of low socioeconomic class, followed by their male counterparts (11.2%). Factors associated with the onset of pediculosis included overcrowding, long hair, family size, age, living in a sordid environment, and personal hygiene. Strategies for the effective control of pediculosis are discussed.

Birthweight and sociobiological factors in Ilorin, Nigeria.

Social and biological factors influencing birthweight of 3053 Ilorin babies were studied. The mean birth weights were 2.998 kg +/- 0.133 (SD) for males and 2.932 kg +/- 0.154 (SD) for females. Multiple regression analysis showed that maternal weight, height, age, education and ethnicity, and child's sex, significantly affected birthweight of infants. Some quadratic and interaction terms also contributed significantly to the prediction of birthweight. The strategies to control the incidence of low birth weight are discussed.

PIP: This study fills in the gap in data for Nigeria on distribution and correlates of birth weight among ethnic groups in the northern region, principally in Ilorin, the capital city of Kwara State. Data were taken from 50% of the records of normal live births from University Hospital during 1986, and may not represent those rural births delivered by traditional birth attendants. The population constitutes 80% of all city hospitals births and those referred for complications. Data included birth weight in metric units, maternal weight, age, height, parity, occupation, ethnic group, and education. Incidence of low birth weight was 18.2% (males) and 20.8% (females) and did not differ significantly by weight and sex. The mean birthweight 2.998 kg for males and 2.932 kg for females is slightly lower than those reported for southwestern Nigeria infants (3.162 kg for males and 3.015 kg for females in Ibidan). This is also lower that the mean birthweights of 3.145 kg recorded in southeastern Nigeria. The Ilorin babies, however, are considerably above northern Nigeria figures in southern Zaria (2.235 kg for males and 2.170 kg for females. Ilorin figures are similar to other equatorial Africa; i.e., rural Cameroon of 3.119 kg, Tanzania of 3.009 kg or 2.850 kg. British and American babies are higher at 3.415 kg and 3.400 respectively. The sex ratio was M:F 1.05:1. For male births, there is tendency for birthweight to rise with maternal height. There is a consistent rise in birthweight with maternal weight, and maternal education; there were significant differences by maternal occupation but not ethnicity. 68% of the variance was accounted for in the multiple regression by maternal weight, age education, height and ethnicity, and child's sex; this confirms the results of other investigators. The introduction of quadratic terms such as maternal weight and age improved the equation. Other variables such as length of gestation, maternal smoking improvement in the nutrition of pregnant women, sex education in school, and encouragement to defer marriage along with nutritional education for teenagers and reproductive age women. These measures may enhance the birthweight and hence survivability of children.

Nutritional status and umbilical hernia in Nigerian school children of different ethnic groups.

The relationship between nutritional status and umbilical hernia was assessed among Hausa and Yoruba school children in rural areas of Kwara State, Nigeria. The prevalence of umbilical hernia in the rural school pupils was 19.4%. The Yoruba school children had a higher prevalence rate of 22.0%, while the prevalence rate for Hausa pupils was 16.9%. The association between umbilical hernia and primary school class was statistically significant. More school children suffering from protein energy malnutrition presented with umbilical hernia. The association between umbilical hernia and nutritional status was weak. The school health component of the national primary health program should be intensified to screen school children regularly for umbilical hernia. The school health environment of rural Nigerian schools should be improved through government efforts.

Adolescent pregnancy: maternal weight effects on fetal heaviness: possible route to improved outcomes.

In a previous report of a zinc supplementation trial in pregnant adolescents zinc effect varied according to maternal weight (wt) status--normal (90-110% of expected wt), light or heavy, prompting this analysis of effects of wt status and gestational wt gain on fetal heaviness relative to length and gestational age (GA) and other pregnancy outcomes. One-third of adolescents shifted in or out of normal wt by delivery, creating seven outcome groups--light-light, light to normal, normal to light, normal-normal, normal to heavy, heavy to normal, and heavy-heavy. These wt class change groups varied significantly as to intrauterine growth (SGA, low AGA, high AGA, and LGA); by weekly grams gain per cm height (ht), birth wt, infant wt/length ratio, and occurrence of low birth wt (LBW). Infants with above average intrauterine growth had an advantage in: absolute size, length of hospital stay, rates of LBW, fetal demise, rates of low Apgar score, and "other" complications. This association between intrauterine growth and maternal wt class change suggests that promotion of wt gain might lower rates of LBW. Birthwt varied by quartiles of weekly wt change (gm) per cm ht in women grouped by their percent of expected wt: in the lowest quartile (Q1) only one group in seven reached average Bwt (3025 grams); with Q4 gain all groups did. Thus, the parameter wt gain/wk/cm ht deserves study as a tool for monitoring wt status and gain to identify those pregnant adolescents in greatest need for nutritional counseling and to set wt gain goals.

The prevalence of infertility in a rural Nigerian community.

The prevalence of infertility in a rural Nigerian community is determined by a systematic random sampling of the population. The overall prevalent rate was 30.3%, giving indices of 9.2% for primary infertility and 21.1% for secondary infertility. Primary infertility is rare after the age of 30 years and acquired causes of infertility are responsible for the high prevalence rate. Genital infections (post-abortal and puerperal) are major contributory factors to the high rate of infertility. Liberal abortion laws, improved socio-economic status and elimination of harmful socio-cultural beliefs and practices would reduce the problem of infertility to the barest minimum in the developing countries.

Anthropometric indicators of children's nutrition in two Nigerian communities.

On a sample of some 2000 children living in two ecologically different zones (the Wooded and Guinea savanna) in Kwara state, Nigeria, body measurements were taken, to serve as indicators of the state of nutrition. There was more undernutrition in the Guinea savanna than in the Wooded. More males than females were undernourished in the Guinea savanna but not in the Wooded. It is argued that the differences between districts stem from social and cultural variables.

Socio-biological factors influencing infertility in a rural Nigerian community.

An assessment of factors influencing infertility in a rural Nigerian community revealed a prevalence rate of 12.9% primary infertility. Secondary infertility among the subjects was 54.1%. Age, education and religion of respondents had statistically significant influence on infertility (P less than 0.05) but not income (P greater than 0.05). The correlation between age of respondents and infertility was statistically significant (P less than 0.05). Primary health care efforts aimed at implementing maternal and child health care should explore the traditional customs on infertility in rural areas of developing countries.

Problems associated with conducting illness prevention and health promotion research in developing countries.

Conducting research projects that are related to illness prevention in developing countries is complex and challenging. In this article we discuss those areas common to health programs which pose potential problems to researchers; especially those foreign to the community in which a research project is taking place. Results from past experiences have indicated that failure to involve community members and indigenous research workers can lead to mistrust, misconceptions, and self-protection. Also, whenever villagers feel that the information they give may be used against them, they may be forced to alter or conceal true data. Health investigators and granting agencies must be prepared to acquaint themselves with problems related to communication, transportation, weather, and how local governments function officially and unofficially so as to guard against unrealistic assumptions and expectations. It has also been noted that students from developing countries are often faced with the double dilemma of attempting to ride the roller coaster between two cultures; and in essence, be a part of both when working on research projects with their professors from developed countries.

A comparative study of the growth status of children with and without SS disease at Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria.

An anthropometric study was conducted to determine the growth status of 1698 children with and without SS disease. Of the total subjects, 979 (57.7%) were from the University of Ilorin elementary school. Children with SS disease made up 42.3% (719) of the total sample. Children with SS disease had anthropometric values which were lower than the 50th percentile of the Unilorin sample. Of all the parameters assessed, the weight-for-age for children with SS disease was particularly deficient compared with that of the Unilorin pupils and with the Harvard standard. Although subjects were from the same Ilorin urban areas, effort was made to match the socio-economic class of children with SS disease with the Unilorin children. The need for the prompt medical management of children with SS disease and the provision of health counselling services for them were recommended.

Pediculosis capitis among primary schoolchildren in urban and rural areas of Kwara State, Nigeria.

The prevalence of head lice (pediculosis humanus capitis) was investigated among urban and rural schoolchildren in Ilorin, capital of Kwara State, Nigeria, and two neighboring rural communities. Among the pupils, 57 (3.1%) of 1,842 urban schoolchildren examined were infested, compared with only one (0.1%) of 1.056 rural school pupils. More female pupils had infestations. Children less than age five, primary I pupils, and pupils in primary VI were not infested. Urban schoolchildren with 41-45 lice per head constituted 7.7% of those infested with nits and lice. Most infected children had one-five and 11-15 lice per head. The school health component of the national primary health care scheme should be intensified to screen schoolchildren regularly for pediculosis and other childhood diseases.

Nutritional beliefs among rural Nigerian mothers.

At Shao, a rural community in Nigeria, 730 women were asked to state their awareness of pregnancy symptoms and nutritional beliefs during pregnancy. Among the participants, 92.3% mentioned the stoppage of menstruation while 81.9% recognized breast enlargement, 16.2% considered nausea and vomiting, and 5.3% mentioned the darkening of the nipples. Specific foods of the protein rich meat group, particularly rabbit Oryctolagus capensis was avoided during pregnancy because of sociocultural beliefs. Energy-giving starch-rich food items were most frequently regarded as good for the body. Over 50% of the respondents considered the roots, the starchy food group, and the fruits and vegetables group as most nutritious during pregnancy. Only 38.8% of the respondents met the recommended weekly weight gain standard and 61.2% did not. It was recommended that a statewide classification of food taboos in Kwara State should be undertaken to assist the services provided by primary healthcare workers. The need to intensify health counseling in antenatal care clinics was highlighted.

Health implications of traditional female circumcision in pregnancy.

PIP: A case of traditional female circumcision during pregnancy, as practiced by her ethnic group, the Igbomina-Ekiti of Kawra State, with loss of the fetus as a result of infection, is presented. The woman was circumcised at age 20 at approximately 34 weeks' gestation. She had bled profusely during the procedure and was treated locally with herbs and snail juice. She had 5 days of pain and purulent bloody discharge. On hospital admission the patient was febrile and anemic, her vulva was hemorrhagic and edematous with partially excised clitoris and labia minora. Fetal heart sounds were present. She was given 2 units of blood, anti-tetanus toxoid, and prophylactic antibiotics. 2 days later the infecting organisms and their antibiotic sensitivity were identified, pseudomonas pyocyanea and Staph. Aureus, sensitive to erythromycin and gentamycin. Her fever abated, but she developed pre-eclampsia and she went into labor spontaneously. At 3 cm dilation, labor failed to progress despite artificial rupture of the membranes. A fresh stillborn female preterm infant was delivered by cesarean section. It was felt that the fetus died because of the infection. In Nigeria, female circumcision may be done in infancy by the Yorubas in the Western States, at puberty by the Igbos in Abakaliki, before marriage by the Isoko in Bendel States and the Hausas in the North, and during the 1st pregnancy by the Ogbaru in Anambra State and the Igbomina-Ekiti in Kawra State.^ieng

Promoting primary health care in contiguous urban and rural populations: Nigeria.

The World Health Organization's goal of "Health for All by Year 2000" through Primary Health Care (PHC) is commendable, but can only be attained with the involvement and collaboration of the non-health sectors as well as the health community. Thirteen rural and urban communities in Nigeria were assessed to develop social, health and primary health care profiles. A model for introducing PCH applicable to these communities was prepared.

Knowledge and acceptance of sex education at Agbo-Oba, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria.

PIP: Data on knowledge about and attitudes toward sex education was collected from 178 females and 224 males, 15 years of age or older, who resided in a random sample of 243 households in Agbo-Oba, an urban center located in the Ilorin area of Kwara, Nigeria. Nigerian youth are rarely exposed to sex education in the schools; yet, they are increasingly exposed to the portrayal of irresponsible sex and pornography in imported films, books, and magazines. The present study assessed the need for sex education in Nigerian society and examined public attitudes toward sex education. Percent distributions were used to analyze the material. 63.4% of the male respondents and 70.2% of the female respondents had some knowledge of sex education. The proportion of those with knowledge of sex education increased with educational level. In all age groups, at least 60% of the respondents knew about sex education. Respondents' sources of sex education included parents (24.6%), friends (36.8%), school teachers (18.4%), books and magazines (64.7%), health personnel (6%), and churches (1.5%). Respondent knowledge of specific components of sex education was limited. For example, only 55.45 recognized contraception as a component of sex education, and only 37.1% considered the dissemination of information on sexually transmitted diseases to be a part of sex education. Only 9.2% of the respondents were satisfied with their current level of sexual knowledge. 95.3% knew about gonorrhea, and 47.8% knew about syphilis, but only 12.2% knew about herpes, and only 7.7% knew about chancroid. 65.1% of the Moslems and 78.4% of the Christian respondents, or 74.1% of all the respondents, agreed that there was a need for sex education in Nigerian society. The proportion who agreed increased with educational level. Among those who were receptive to sex education, 88.3% said it should be taught by health personnel; 59.7%, by parents; 42.3%, by school teachers; 11.4%, by religious institutions; and 9.7%, by peers. 68.7% thought that schools were the most appropriate setting for imparting sex education. 60% of the respondents knew about oral contraceptives and condoms, but only 40% knew about other methods. 67.7% of the respondents were currently practicing contraception. 67.7% of the respondents believed that the recent influx of pornography into the country was corrupting the morals of the young. 56.3% were in favor of a government ban on the importation of these materials. Overall, the findings indicate that there is a need for sex education and that the majority of the respondents are in favor of introducing sex education into Nigerian society. In view of these findings, a national task force should be appointed to develop sex education training programs, to support and coordinate needed research, and to develop educational materials and experimental sex education courses.^ieng