Stable Isotope Probing-nanoFTIR for Quantitation of Cellular Metabolism and Observation of Growth-Dependent Spectral Features.

This study utilizes nanoscale Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (nanoFTIR) to perform stable isotope probing (SIP) on individual bacteria cells cultured in the presence of 13C-labelled glucose. SIP-nanoFTIR simultaneously quantifies single-cell metabolism through infrared spectroscopy and acquires cellular morphological information via atomic force microscopy. The redshift of the amide I peak corresponds to the isotopic enrichment of newly synthesized proteins. These observations of single-cell translational activity are comparable to those of conventional methods, examining bulk cell numbers. Observing cells cultured under conditions of limited carbon, SIP- nanoFTIR is used to identify environmentally-induced changes in metabolic heterogeneity and cellular morphology. Individuals outcompeting their neighboring cells will likely play a disproportionately large role in shaping population dynamics during adverse conditions or environmental fluctuations. Additionally, SIP-nanoFTIR enables the spectroscopic differentiation of specific cellular growth phases. During cellular replication, subcellular isotope distribution becomes more homogenous, which is reflected in the spectroscopic features dependent on the extent of 13C-13C mode coupling or to specific isotopic symmetries within protein secondary structures. As SIP-nanoFTIR captures single-cell metabolism, environmentally-induced cellular processes, and subcellular isotope localization, this technique offers widespread applications across a variety of disciplines including microbial ecology, biophysics, biopharmaceuticals, medicinal science, and cancer research.

Future space experiment platforms for astrobiology and astrochemistry research.

Space experiments are a technically challenging but a scientifically important part of astrobiology and astrochemistry research. The International Space Station (ISS) is an excellent example of a highly successful and long-lasting research platform for experiments in space, that has provided a wealth of scientific data over the last two decades. However, future space platforms present new opportunities to conduct experiments with the potential to address key topics in astrobiology and astrochemistry. In this perspective, the European Space Agency (ESA) Topical Team Astrobiology and Astrochemistry (with feedback from the wider scientific community) identifies a number of key topics and summarizes the 2021 "ESA SciSpacE Science Community White Paper" for astrobiology and astrochemistry. We highlight recommendations for the development and implementation of future experiments, discuss types of in situ measurements, experimental parameters, exposure scenarios and orbits, and identify knowledge gaps and how to advance scientific utilization of future space-exposure platforms that are either currently under development or in an advanced planning stage. In addition to the ISS, these platforms include CubeSats and SmallSats, as well as larger platforms such as the Lunar Orbital Gateway. We also provide an outlook for in situ experiments on the Moon and Mars, and welcome new possibilities to support the search for exoplanets and potential biosignatures within and beyond our solar system.

Biosignature stability in space enables their use for life detection on Mars.

Two rover missions to Mars aim to detect biomolecules as a sign of extinct or extant life with, among other instruments, Raman spectrometers. However, there are many unknowns about the stability of Raman-detectable biomolecules in the martian environment, clouding the interpretation of the results. To quantify Raman-detectable biomolecule stability, we exposed seven biomolecules for 469 days to a simulated martian environment outside the International Space Station. Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) strongly changed the Raman spectra signals, but only minor change was observed when samples were shielded from UVR. These findings provide support for Mars mission operations searching for biosignatures in the subsurface. This experiment demonstrates the detectability of biomolecules by Raman spectroscopy in Mars regolith analogs after space exposure and lays the groundwork for a consolidated space-proven database of spectroscopy biosignatures in targeted environments.

Infrared nanoscopy and tomography of intracellular structures.

Although techniques such as fluorescence-based super-resolution imaging or confocal microscopy simultaneously gather both morphological and chemical data, these techniques often rely on the use of localized and chemically specific markers. To eliminate this flaw, we have developed a method of examining cellular cross sections using the imaging power of scattering-type scanning near-field optical microscopy and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy at a spatial resolution far beyond the diffraction limit. Herewith, nanoscale surface and volumetric chemical imaging is performed using the intrinsic contrast generated by the characteristic absorption of mid-infrared radiation by the covalent bonds. We employ infrared nanoscopy to study the subcellular structures of eukaryotic (Chlamydomonas reinhardtii) and prokaryotic (Escherichia coli) species, revealing chemically distinct regions within each cell such as the microtubular structure of the flagellum. Serial 100 nm-thick cellular cross-sections were compiled into a tomogram yielding a three-dimensional infrared image of subcellular structure distribution at 20 nm resolution. The presented methodology is able to image biological samples complementing current fluorescence nanoscopy but at less interference due to the low energy of infrared radiation and the absence of labeling.

Proteomic and Metabolomic Characteristics of Extremophilic Fungi Under Simulated Mars Conditions.

Filamentous fungi have been associated with extreme habitats, including nuclear power plant accident sites and the International Space Station (ISS). Due to their immense adaptation and phenotypic plasticity capacities, fungi may thrive in what seems like uninhabitable niches. This study is the first report of fungal survival after exposure of monolayers of conidia to simulated Mars conditions (SMC). Conidia of several Chernobyl nuclear accident-associated and ISS-isolated strains were tested for UV-C and SMC sensitivity, which resulted in strain-dependent survival. Strains surviving exposure to SMC for 30 min, ISSFT-021-30 and IMV 00236-30, were further characterized for proteomic, and metabolomic changes. Differential expression of proteins involved in ribosome biogenesis, translation, and carbohydrate metabolic processes was observed. No significant metabolome alterations were revealed. Lastly, ISSFT-021-30 conidia re-exposed to UV-C exhibited enhanced UV-C resistance when compared to the conidia of unexposed ISSFT-021.

Limits of Life and the Habitability of Mars: The ESA Space Experiment BIOMEX on the ISS.

BIOMEX (BIOlogy and Mars EXperiment) is an ESA/Roscosmos space exposure experiment housed within the exposure facility EXPOSE-R2 outside the Zvezda module on the International Space Station (ISS). The design of the multiuser facility supports-among others-the BIOMEX investigations into the stability and level of degradation of space-exposed biosignatures such as pigments, secondary metabolites, and cell surfaces in contact with a terrestrial and Mars analog mineral environment. In parallel, analysis on the viability of the investigated organisms has provided relevant data for evaluation of the habitability of Mars, for the limits of life, and for the likelihood of an interplanetary transfer of life (theory of lithopanspermia). In this project, lichens, archaea, bacteria, cyanobacteria, snow/permafrost algae, meristematic black fungi, and bryophytes from alpine and polar habitats were embedded, grown, and cultured on a mixture of martian and lunar regolith analogs or other terrestrial minerals. The organisms and regolith analogs and terrestrial mineral mixtures were then exposed to space and to simulated Mars-like conditions by way of the EXPOSE-R2 facility. In this special issue, we present the first set of data obtained in reference to our investigation into the habitability of Mars and limits of life. This project was initiated and implemented by the BIOMEX group, an international and interdisciplinary consortium of 30 institutes in 12 countries on 3 continents. Preflight tests for sample selection, results from ground-based simulation experiments, and the space experiments themselves are presented and include a complete overview of the scientific processes required for this space experiment and postflight analysis. The presented BIOMEX concept could be scaled up to future exposure experiments on the Moon and will serve as a pretest in low Earth orbit.

Biota and biomolecules in extreme environments on Earth: implications for life detection on Mars.

The three main requirements for life as we know it are the presence of organic compounds, liquid water, and free energy. Several groups of organic compounds (e.g., amino acids, nucleobases, lipids) occur in all life forms on Earth and are used as diagnostic molecules, i.e., biomarkers, for the characterization of extant or extinct life. Due to their indispensability for life on Earth, these biomarkers are also prime targets in the search for life on Mars. Biomarkers degrade over time; in situ environmental conditions influence the preservation of those molecules. Nonetheless, upon shielding (e.g., by mineral surfaces), particular biomarkers can persist for billions of years, making them of vital importance in answering questions about the origins and limits of life on early Earth and Mars. The search for organic material and biosignatures on Mars is particularly challenging due to the hostile environment and its effect on organic compounds near the surface. In support of life detection on Mars, it is crucial to investigate analogue environments on Earth that resemble best past and present Mars conditions. Terrestrial extreme environments offer a rich source of information allowing us to determine how extreme conditions affect life and molecules associated with it. Extremophilic organisms have adapted to the most stunning conditions on Earth in environments with often unique geological and chemical features. One challenge in detecting biomarkers is to optimize extraction, since organic molecules can be low in abundance and can strongly adsorb to mineral surfaces. Methods and analytical tools in the field of life science are continuously improving. Amplification methods are very useful for the detection of low concentrations of genomic material but most other organic molecules are not prone to amplification methods. Therefore, a great deal depends on the extraction efficiency. The questions "what to look for", "where to look", and "how to look for it" require more of our attention to ensure the success of future life detection missions on Mars.

Epifluorescence, SEM, TEM and nanoSIMS image analysis of the cold phenotype of Clostridium psychrophilum at subzero temperatures.

We have applied an image-based approach combining epifluorescence microscopy, electron microscopy and nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry (nanoSIMS) with stable isotope probing to examine directly the characteristic cellular features involved in the expression of the cold phenotype in the Antarctic bacterium Clostridium psychrophilum exposed to a temperature range from +5 to -15 °C under anoxic conditions. We observed dramatic morphological changes depending on temperature. At temperatures below -10 °C, cell division was inhibited and consequently filamentous growth predominated. Bacterial cells appeared surrounded by a remarkably thick cell wall and a capsule formed of long exopolysaccharide fibres. Moreover, bacteria were entirely embedded within a dense extracellular matrix, suggesting a role both in cryo-protection and in the cycling of nutrients and genetic material. Strings of extracellular DNA, transient cell membrane permeability and release of membrane vesicles were observed that suggest that evolution via transfer of genetic material may be especially active under frozen conditions. While at -5 °C, the bacterial population was metabolically healthy, at temperatures below -10 °C, most cells showed no sign of active metabolism or the metabolic flux was extremely slowed down; instead of being consumed, carbon was accumulated and stored in intracellular granules as in preparation for a long-term survival.

Organics Exposure in Orbit (OREOcube): A next-generation space exposure platform.

The OREOcube (ORganics Exposure in Orbit cube) experiment on the International Space Station (ISS) will investigate the effects of solar and cosmic radiation on organic thin films supported on inorganic substrates. Probing the kinetics of structural changes and photomodulated organic-inorganic interactions with real-time in situ UV-visible spectroscopy, this experiment will investigate the role played by solid mineral surfaces in the (photo)chemical evolution, transport, and distribution of organics in our solar system and beyond. In preparation for the OREOcube ISS experiment, we report here laboratory measurements of the photostability of thin films of the 9,10-anthraquinone derivative anthrarufin (51 nm thick) layered upon ultrathin films of iron oxides magnetite and hematite (4 nm thick), as well as supported directly on fused silica. During irradiation with UV and visible light simulating the photon flux and spectral distribution on the surface of Mars, anthrarufin/iron oxide bilayer thin films were exposed to CO2 (800 Pa), the main constituent (and pressure) of the martian atmosphere. The time-dependent photodegradation of anthrarufin thin films revealed the inhibition of degradation by both types of underlying iron oxides relative to anthrarufin on bare fused silica. Interactions between the organic and inorganic thin films, apparent in spectral shifts of the anthrarufin bands, are consistent with presumed free-electron quenching of semiquinone anion radicals by the iron oxide layers, effectively protecting the organic compound from photodegradation. Combining such in situ real-time kinetic measurements of thin films in future space exposure experiments on the ISS with postflight sample return and analysis will provide time-course studies complemented by in-depth chemical analysis. This will facilitate the characterization and modeling of the chemistry of organic species associated with mineral surfaces in astrobiological contexts.

The Organism/Organic Exposure to Orbital Stresses (O/OREOS) satellite: radiation exposure in low-earth orbit and supporting laboratory studies of iron tetraphenylporphyrin chloride.

We report results from the exposure of the metalloporphyrin iron tetraphenylporphyrin chloride (FeTPPCl) to the outer space environment, measured in situ aboard the Organism/Organic Exposure to Orbital Stresses nanosatellite. FeTPPCl was exposed for a period of 17 months (3700 h of direct solar exposure), which included broad-spectrum solar radiation (∼122 nm to the near infrared). Motivated by the potential role of metalloporphyrins as molecular biomarkers, the exposure of thin-film samples of FeTPPCl to the space environment in low-Earth orbit was monitored in situ via ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy and reported telemetrically. The space data were complemented by laboratory exposure experiments that used a high-fidelity solar simulator covering the spectral range of the spaceflight measurements. We found that thin-film samples of FeTPPCl that were in contact with a humid headspace gas (0.8-2.3% relative humidity) were particularly susceptible to destruction upon irradiation, degrading up to 10 times faster than identical thin films in contact with dry headspace gases; this degradation may also be related to the presence of oxides of nitrogen in those cells. In the companion terrestrial experiments, simulated solar exposure of FeTPPCl films in contact with either Ar or CO2:O2:Ar (10:0.01:1000) headspace gas resulted in growth of a band in the films' infrared spectra at 1961 cm(-1). We concluded that the most likely carriers of this band are allene (C3H4) and chloropropadiene (C3H3Cl), putative molecular fragments of the destruction of the porphyrin ring. The thin films studied in space and in solar simulator-based experiments show qualitatively similar spectral evolution as a function of contacting gaseous species but display significant differences in the time dependence of those changes. The relevance of our findings to planetary science, biomarker research, and the photostability of organic materials in astrobiologically relevant environments is discussed.

Toxicology of nanoparticles.

While nanotechnology and the production of nanoparticles are growing exponentially, research into the toxicological impact and possible hazard of nanoparticles to human health and the environment is still in its infancy. This review aims to give a comprehensive summary of what is known today about nanoparticle toxicology, the mechanisms at the cellular level, entry routes into the body and possible impacts to public health. Proper characterisation of the nanomaterial, as well as understanding processes happening on the nanoparticle surface when in contact with living systems, is crucial to understand possible toxicological effects. Dose as a key parameter is essential in hazard identification and risk assessment of nanotechnologies. Understanding nanoparticle pathways and entry routes into the body requires further research in order to inform policy makers and regulatory bodies about the nanotoxicological potential of certain nanomaterials.

Quantification of nanoparticle uptake by cells using an unbiased sampling method and electron microscopy.

AIMS: By randomly sampling a known fraction of a pellet of cultured cells, we have accurately estimated the mean number of 50 nm gold nanoparticles accumulated within a single cell. Cellular nanoparticle uptake was measured using a combination of stereological sampling techniques and transmission electron microscopy. MATERIALS & METHODS: Nanoparticles were counted individually and their intracellular location was recorded. Quantifying cell and nanoparticle number by analyzing a known fraction of the sample led to precise estimates of intracellular nanoparticle numbers and their spatial locations on an ultrastructural level. We propose a simple and reliable fractionator design and show its applicability and potential using fibroblast cells exposed to 50-nm gold nanoparticles. RESULTS & CONCLUSION: We demonstrate that this approach is suitable for any electron-dense nanomaterial resolvable by electron microscopy and any convex-shaped cells. In addition, the fractionator concept is flexible enough to be used for spatio-temporal or in vivo studies.

Genotoxicity evaluation of amorphous silica nanoparticles of different sizes using the micronucleus and the plasmid lacZ gene mutation assay.

We investigated the potential of four well-characterized amorphous silica nanoparticles to induce chromosomal aberrations and gene mutations using two in vitro genotoxicity assays. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to verify the manufacturer's nominal size of 10, 30, 80 and 400 nm which showed actual sizes of 11, 34, 34 and 248 nm, respectively. The 80 (34) nm silica nanoparticles induced chromosomal aberrations in the micronucleus assay using 3T3-L1 mouse fibroblasts and the 30 (34) and 80 (34) nm silica nanoparticles induced gene mutations in mouse embryonic fibroblasts carrying the lacZ reporter gene. TEM imaging demonstrated that the majority of nanoparticles were localized in vacuoles and not in the nucleus of 3T3-L1 cells, indicating that the observed DNA damage was most likely a result of indirect mechanisms. Further studies are needed to reveal these mechanisms and to determine the biological relevance of the effects of these particular silica nanoparticles in vivo.

Microbial diversity in Calamita ferromagnetic sand.

Calamita is a black ferromagnetic sand from a marine iron ore on Elba Island (Italy). Its total iron content is approximately 80% and a major fraction (63% w/w) has magnetic properties. Desiccation, ultraviolet irradiation and the high temperature induced by the thermal conductivity of iron make Calamita sand an extreme biotope. We report, for the first time, the geomicrobiological characterization of Calamita sand, which showed a low bacterial biodiversity as determined by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and 16S rRNA gene clone library analysis. We retrieved sequences closely affiliated with uncultured bacteria inhabiting the harshest deserts on Earth. Radiation- and desiccation-tolerant bacteria from the phyla Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria and Deinococcus-Thermus dominated the community. Heavy metal-resistant organisms, for example Variovorax sp. were also abundant. Sequences of organisms with an inferred metabolism based on lithotrophic iron oxidation were detected. The sands also contained thermophilic bacilli, which were cultivated at 60°C. These data provided important insights also into the biogeographical distribution of these organisms in the Mediterranean region. In summary, this study on Calamita helps to expand our knowledge of the biodiversity in extreme, iron-rich, environments.

Quantification of nanoparticle uptake by cells using microscopical and analytical techniques.

Quantification of nanoparticles in biological systems (i.e., cells, tissues and organs) is becoming a vital part of nanotoxicological and nanomedical fields. Dose is a key parameter when assessing behavior and any potential risk of nanomaterials. Various techniques for nanoparticle quantification in cells and tissues already exist but will need further development in order to make measurements reliable, reproducible and intercomparable between different techniques. Microscopy allows detection and location of nanoparticles in cells and has been used extensively in recent years to characterize nanoparticles and their pathways in living systems. Besides microscopical techniques (light microscopy and electron microscopy mainly), analytical techniques such as mass spectrometry, an established technique in trace element analysis, have been used in nanoparticle research. Other techniques require 'labeled' particles, fluorescently, radioactively or magnetically. However, these techniques lack spatial resolution and subcellular localization is not possible. To date, only electron microscopy offers the resolving power to determine accumulation of nanoparticles in cells due to its ability to image particles individually. So-called super-resolution light microscopy techniques are emerging to provide sufficient resolution on the light microscopy level to image or 'see' particles as individual particles. Nevertheless, all microscopy techniques require statistically sound sampling strategies in order to provide quantitative results. Stereology is a well-known sampling technique in various areas and, in combination with electron microscopy, proves highly successful with regard to quantification of nanoparticle uptake by cells.

Fate and effects of CeO2 nanoparticles in aquatic ecotoxicity tests.

Cerium dioxide nanoparticles (CeO2 NPs) are increasingly being used as a catalyst in the automotive industry. Consequently, increasing amounts of CeO2 NPs are expected to enter the environment where their fate in and potential impacts are unknown. In this paper we describe the fate and effects of CeO2 NPs of three different sizes (14, 20, and 29 nm) in aquatic toxicity tests. In each standard test medium (pH 7.4) the CeO2 nanoparticles aggregated (mean aggregate size approximately 400 nm). Four test organisms covering three different trophic levels were investigated, i.e., the unicellular green alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, two crustaceans: Daphnia magna and Thamnocephalus platyurus, and embryos of Danio rerio. No acute toxicity was observed for the two crustaceans and D. rerio embryos, up to test concentrations of 1000, 5000, and 200 mg/L, respectively. In contrast, significant chronic toxicity to P. subcapitata with 10% effect concentrations (EC10s) between 2.6 and 5.4 mg/L was observed. Food shortage resulted in chronic toxicity to D. magna, for wich EC10s of > or = 8.8 and < or = 20.0 mg/L were established. Chronic toxicity was found to increase with decreasing nominal particle diameter and the difference in toxicity could be explained by the difference in surface area. Using the data set, PNEC(aquatic)S > or = 0.052 and < or = 0.108 mg/L were derived. Further experiments were performed to explain the observed toxicity to the most sensitive organism, i.e., P. subcapitata. Toxicity could not be related to a direct effect of dissolved Ce or CeO2 NP uptake or adsorption, nor to an indirect effect of nutrient depletion (by sorption to NPs) or physical light restriction (through shading by the NPs). However, observed clustering of NPs around algal cells may locally cause a direct or indirect effect.

In vitro developmental toxicity test detects inhibition of stem cell differentiation by silica nanoparticles.

While research into the potential toxic properties of nanomaterials is now increasing, the area of developmental toxicity has remained relatively uninvestigated. The embryonic stem cell test is an in vitro screening assay used to investigate the embryotoxic potential of chemicals by determining their ability to inhibit differentiation of embryonic stem cells into spontaneously contracting cardiomyocytes. Four well characterized silica nanoparticles of various sizes were used to investigate whether nanomaterials are capable of inhibition of differentiation in the embryonic stem cell test. Nanoparticle size distributions and dispersion characteristics were determined before and during incubation in the stem cell culture medium by means of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering. Mouse embryonic stem cells were exposed to silica nanoparticles at concentrations ranging from 1 to 100 microg/ml. The embryonic stem cell test detected a concentration dependent inhibition of differentiation of stem cells into contracting cardiomyocytes by two silica nanoparticles of primary size 10 (TEM 11) and 30 (TEM 34) nm while two other particles of primary size 80 (TEM 34) and 400 (TEM 248) nm had no effect up to the highest concentration tested. Inhibition of differentiation of stem cells occurred below cytotoxic concentrations, indicating a specific effect of the particles on the differentiation of the embryonic stem cells. The impaired differentiation of stem cells by such widely used particles warrants further investigation into the potential of these nanoparticles to migrate into the uterus, placenta and embryo and their possible effects on embryogenesis.

Reproducible comet assay of amorphous silica nanoparticles detects no genotoxicity.

Genotoxicity of commercial colloidal and laboratory-synthesized silica nanoparticles was tested using the single cell gel electrophoresis or Comet assay. By using a carefully developed protocol and careful characterization of the nanoparticle dispersions, Comet assays were performed on 3T3-L1 fibroblasts with 3, 6, and 24 h incubations and 4 or 40 microg/ml of silica nanoparticles. No significant genotoxicity was observed for the nanoparticles tested under the conditions described, and results were independently validated in two separate laboratories, showing that in vitro toxicity testing can be quantitatively reproducible.