Multidrug- and Extensively Drug-Resistant Uropathogenic Escherichia coli Clinical Strains: Phylogenetic Groups Widely Associated with Integrons Maintain High Genetic Diversity.

In recent years, an increase of uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) strains with Multidrug-resistant (MDR) and Extensively Drug-resistant (XDR) profiles that complicate therapy for urinary tract infections (UTIs) has been observed and has directly impacted costs and extended hospital stays. The aim of this study was to determine MDR- and XDR-UPEC clinical strains, their virulence genes, their phylogenetic groups and to ascertain their relationship with integrons and genetic diversity. From a collection of 500 UPEC strains, 103 were selected with MDR and XDR characteristics. MDR-UPEC strains were mainly associated with phylogenetic groups D (54.87%) and B2 (39.02%) with a high percentage (≥70%) of several fimbrial genes (ecpA, fimH, csgA, and papGII), an iron uptake gene (chuA), and a toxin gene (hlyA). In addition, a moderate frequency (40-70%) of other genes (iutD, tosA, and bcsA) was observed. XDR-UPEC strains were predominantly associated with phylogenetic groups B2 (47.61%) and D (42.85%), which grouped with ≥80 virulence genes, including ecpA, fimH, csgA, papGII, iutD, and chuA. A moderate frequency (40-70%) of the tosA and hlyA genes was observed. The class 1 and 2 integrons that were identified in the MDR- and XDR-UPEC strains were associated with phylogenetic groups D, B2, and A, while the XDR-UPEC strains that were associated with phylogenetic groups B2, D, and A showed an extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) phenotype. The modifying enzymes (aadA1, aadB, aacC, ant1, dfrA1, dfrA17, and aadA4) that were identified in the variable region of class 1 and 2 integrons from the MDR strains showed resistance to gentamycin (56.25 and 66.66%, respectively) and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (84.61 and 66.66%, respectively). The MDR- and XDR-UPEC strains were distributed into seven clusters and were closely related to phylogenic groups B2 and D. The diversity analysis by PFGE showed 42.68% of clones of MDR-UPEC and no clonal association in the XDR-UPEC strains. In conclusion, phylogenetic groups including virulence genes are widely associated with two integron classes (1 and 2) in MDR- and XDR-UPEC strains.

Vancomycin modifies the expression of the agr system in multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical isolates.

UNLABELLED: Staphylococcus aureus is an opportunistic pathogen that colonizes human hosts and causes a wide variety of diseases. Two interacting regulatory systems called agr (accessory gene regulator) and sar (staphylococcal accessory regulator) are involved in the regulation of virulence factors. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of vancomycin on hld and spa gene expression during the exponential and post-exponential growth phases in multidrug-resistant (MDR) S. aureus. METHODS: Antibiotic susceptibility was evaluated by the standard microdilution method. The phylogenetic profile was obtained by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Polymorphisms of agr and SCCmec (staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec) were analyzed by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The expression levels of hld and spa were analyzed by reverse transcription-PCR. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was performed to detect protein A, and biofilm formation was analyzed via crystal violet staining. RESULTS: In total, 60.60% (20/33) of S. aureus clinical isolates were MDR. Half (10/20) of the MDR S. aureus isolates were distributed in subcluster 10, with >90% similarity among them. In the isolates of this subcluster, a high prevalence (100%) for the agrII and the cassette SCCmec II polymorphisms was found. Our data showed significant increases in hld expression during the post-exponential phase in the presence and absence of vancomycin. Significant increases in spa expression, protein A production and biofilm formation were observed during the post-exponential phase when the MDR S. aureus isolates were challenged with vancomycin. CONCLUSION: The polymorphism agrII, which is associated with nosocomial isolates, was the most prevalent polymorphism in MDR S. aureus. Additionally, under our study conditions, vancomycin modified hld and spa expression in these clinical isolates. Therefore, vancomycin may regulate alternative systems that jointly participate in the regulation of these virulence factors.

Vancomycin tolerant, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus reveals the effects of vancomycin on cell wall thickening.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an important opportunistic pathogen that causes both healthcare- and community-acquired infections. An increase in the incidence of these infections may lead to a substantial change in the rate of vancomycin usage. Incidence of reduced susceptibility to vancomycin has been increasing worldwide for the last few years, conferring different levels of resistance to vancomycin as well as producing changes in the cell wall structure. The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of vancomycin on cell wall thickening in clinical isolates of vancomycin-tolerant (VT) MRSA obtained from pediatric patients. From a collection of 100 MRSA clinical isolates from pediatric patients, 12% (12/100) were characterized as VT-MRSA, and from them, 41.66% (5/12) exhibited the heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (hVISA) phenotype. Multiplex-PCR assays revealed 66.66% (8/12), 25% (3/12), and 8.33% (1/12) of the VT-MRSA isolates were associated with agr group II, I, and III polymorphisms, respectively; the II-mec gene was amplified from 83.3% (10/12) of the isolates, and the mecIVa gene was amplified from 16.66% (2/12) of the isolates. Pulsed field electrophoresis (PFGE) fingerprint analysis showed 62% similarity among the VT-MRSA isolates. Thin transverse sections analyzed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed an average increase of 24 nm (105.55%) in the cell wall thickness of VT-MRSA compared with untreated VT-MRSA isolates. In summary, these data revealed that the thickened cell walls of VT-MRSA clinical isolates with agr type II and SCCmec group II polymorphisms are associated with an adaptive resistance to vancomycin.

Phenotypic characterization of multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains isolated from pediatric patients associated to biofilm formation.

BACKGROUND: Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen that has acquired several mechanisms of resistance to multiple groups of antibiotic agents and has been widely employed as a model organism for the study of biofilm formation. Many P. aeruginosa structures embedded in the extracellular matrix, such as exopolysaccharides (EPS), flagella, and type-IV pili (T4P), have been associated with biofilm formation. In this study, we assess biofilm formation by crystal violet quantification in clinical strains of multidrug-resistant (MDR) P. aeruginosa isolated from the Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez (HIMFG) associated to total and reducing EPS production (quantification by the anthrone and DNS method, respectively), twitching motility activity by T4P, and flagellar-mediated motility. RESULTS: The determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) showed that >50% of P. aeruginosa strains were resistant to 12 different antibiotics (TIC, CAZ, CTX, CRO, FEP, AZT, GM, CIP, LEV, PZT, IMP, and MEM). Total and reducing EPS analysis of the 58 biofilm-forming MDR P. aeruginosa strains showed heterogeneous values ranging from OD600 9.06 to 212.33, displaying a linear correlation with the production of total EPS (59.66µg/ml to 6000.33µg/ml; R(2)=0.89), and a higher correlation with reducing EPS (88.33µg/ml to 1100.66µg/ml; R(2)=0.96). T4P twitching motility showed a moderated linear correlation (2.00mm to 28.33mm; R(2)=0.74). Even though it has been demonstrated that flagella contribute to the initial stages of biofilm formation, crystal violet analysis showed a moderate correlation (R(2)=0.49) with flagellar-mediated motility in MDR P. aeruginosa under the tested conditions. In addition, PFGE profiles revealed two subgroups generating profiles group A, consisting of 89.63% (52/58) of the strains, and group B, consisting of 13.09% (6/58) of the strains. CONCLUSIONS: Phenotypic analysis showed a correlation among the biofilms developed in the MDR P. aeruginosa strains with EPS (total and reducing) production, T4P-activity by twitching motility and flagellar-mediated motility.

Molecular analysis and distribution of multidrug-resistant Enterococcus faecium isolates belonging to clonal complex 17 in a tertiary care center in Mexico City.

BACKGROUND: Enterococcus faecium has recently emerged as a multidrug-resistant nosocomial pathogen involved in outbreaks worldwide. A high rate of resistance to different antibiotics has been associated with virulent clonal complex 17 isolates carrying the esp and hyl genes and the purK1 allele. RESULTS: Twelve clinical vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VREF) isolates were obtained from pediatric patients at the Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez (HIMFG). Among these VREF isolates, 58.3% (7/12) were recovered from urine, while 41.7% (5/12) were recovered from the bloodstream. The VREF isolates showed a 100% rate of resistance to ampicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanate, ciprofloxacin, clindamycin, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, gentamicin, rifampicin, erythromycin and teicoplanin. In addition, 16.7% (2/12) of the isolates were resistant to linezolid, and 66.7% (8/12) were resistant to tetracycline and doxycycline. PCR analysis revealed the presence of the vanA gene in all 12 VREF isolates, esp in 83.3% (10/12) of the isolates and hyl in 50% (6/12) of the isolates. Phylogenetic analysis via molecular typing was performed using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and demonstrated 44% similarity among the VREF isolates. MLST analysis identified four different sequence types (ST412, ST757, ST203 and ST612). CONCLUSION: This study provides the first report of multidrug-resistant VREF isolates belonging to clonal complex 17 from a tertiary care center in Mexico City. Multidrug resistance and genetic determinants of virulence confer advantages among VREF in the colonization of their host. Therefore, the prevention and control of the spread of nosocomial infections caused by VREF is crucial for identifying new emergent subclones that could be challenging to treat in subsequent years.

Características patogénicas de cepas de Pseudomonas aeruginosa resistentes a carbapenémicos, asociadas con la formación de biopelículas / Pathogenic characteristics of Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains resistant to carbapenems associated with biofilm formation

Introducción. A escala mundial, se ha observado la aparición de cepas de Pseudomonas aeruginosa multirresistentes durante las últimas décadas. Este patógeno oportunista produce mecanismos de resistencia a diversos antibióticos. La resistencia a carbapenémicos en cepas de P. aeruginosa se ha asociado con la formación de biopelículas bacterianas, favorecidas por la presencia de exopolisacáridos (EPS) embebidos en una matriz extracelular y por la producción de los pili tipo IV (T4P). El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar la formación de biopelículas en cepas clínicas aisladas en el Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez de P. aeruginosa resistentes a carbapenémicos, a través de la cuantificación de los expolisacáridos totales-reductores y su asociación con la expresión fenotípica de los T4P. Métodos. Se realizaron ensayos de susceptibilidad antibiótica por el método de Kirby-Bauer en 92 cepas clínicas de P. aeruginosa. Asimismo, se determinó la concentración mínima inhibitoria (MIC) para imipenem (IMP) y meropenem (MEM) por el método de dilución seriada en placas con agar con un replicador de Steers. La producción de metalo-β-lactamasas fue determinada mediante la técnica de difusión en disco y de sinergismo. Las biopelículas fueron realizadas en cepas clínicas de P. aeruginosa resistentes a carbapenémicos, a través de la cuantificación de cristal violeta, azúcares totales (antrona) y azúcares reductores (DNS), además de la expresión fenotípica de los T4P por la actividad de twitching motility . La diversidad genética de las cepas formadoras de biopelículas y productoras de azúcares reductores fue evaluada mediante la técnica de electroforesis de campos pulsados (PFGE). Resultados. El 30.4% (28/92) de las cepas de P. aeruginosa de origen pediátrico fueron recuperadas de la sala de cirugía y el 50% (46/92) de muestras de orina. Los resultados por Kirby-bauer mostraron que más de 50% de la cepas de P. aeruginosa fueron resistentes a 12 diferentes antibióticos. La MIC a los carbapenémicos fue de 64 µg/ml, con 43.1% (25/58) para MEM y 56.8% (33/58) para IMP. Así mismo, la producción de metalo-β-lactamasas fue observada en 43% (25/58) para MEM, 2% (1/58) para IMP y 12% (7/58) para ambas. Los análisis mostraron que 82% (48/58) de las cepas de P. aeruginosa resistentes a carbapenémicos fueron altas formadoras de biopelículas. De éstas, 46.5% (27/58) mostraron concentraciones de EPS totales de 2000 a 6000 µg/ml y 27.5% (16/58) mostraron concentraciones de EPS reductores de 316 a 1108 µg/ml; además, 75% (44/58) de estas cepas mostraron actividad fenotípica de twitching motility . Conclusiones. La detección de azúcares totales, azúcares reductores y el fenómeno de twitching motility son factores que favorecen el desarrollo de las biopelículas en cepas clínicas de P. aeruginosa resistentes a carbapenémicos. Los datos sugieren que estos factores están involucrados en la formación de biopelículas que confieren a la bacteria la capacidad para sobrevivir, persistir y colonizar a su hospedero.

Background. In recent years, the worldwide emergence of multidrug-resistant strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been observed. This opportunistic pathogen produces mechanisms of resistance to several antibiotics. The resistance to carbapenems in P. aeruginosa strains has been associated with bacterial biofilm formation, favored by the presence of exopolysaccharides (EPS) embedded in an extracellular matrix and to the production of type IV pili (T4P). We undertook this study to assess biofilm formation in clinical strains of P. aeruginosa resistant to carbapenems isolated at the Hospital Infantil de Mexico Federico Gomez (HIMFG) through quantification of total-reducing EPS and its association with the phenotypic expression of T4P. Methods. Antibiotic susceptibility tests were performed using the Kirby-Bauer method in 92 clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa ; likewise, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined for imipenem (IMP) and meropenem (MEM) by the serial dilution method in agar plates with a Steers replicator. Production of metallo-β-lactamase (MBL) was determined by the disk diffusion method and synergism. Biofilm formation was performed in clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa resistant to carbapenems through the quantification of crystal violet, total sugar (anthrone), and reducing sugar (DNS), in addition to the phenotypic expression of T4P activity of twitching motility. The genetic diversity of strains forming biofilm and producing reducing sugars was evaluated by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Results. There were 30.4% (28/92) of P. aeruginosa strains of pediatric origin and 50% (46/92) of urine samples that were recovered from the operating room. The results using the Kirby-Bauer method showed that >50% of P. aeruginosa strains were resistant to 12 different antibiotics. The MIC to carbapenems was 64 µg/ml, with 43.1% (25/58) for MEM and 56.8% (33/58) for IMP. Likewise, MBL production was observed in 43% (25/58) for MEM, 2% (1/58) for IMP, and 12% (7/58) for both. Qualitative and quantitative analysis showed that 82% (48/58) of P. aeruginosa strains resistant to carbapenems were high biofilm formers using the crystal violet method. Of the high biofilm forming strains, 46.5% (27/58) showed concentrations of total EPS between 2000 and 6000 µg/ml and 27.5% (16/58) showed concentrations of reducing EPS between 316 and 1108 µg/ml. In addition, 75% (44/58) of these strains showed phenotypic activity of twitching motility. Conclusions. Detection of total sugars, reducing sugars, and the phenomenon of twitching motility are factors that promote the development of biofilms in clinical strains of P. aeruginosa resistant to MBL producers to carbapenems. Our data suggest that these factors are involved in biofilm formation, which confer bacterium with the ability to survive, persist, and colonize its host.

pep27 and lytA in Vancomycin-Tolerant Pneumococci.

Vancomycin therapy failure due to the emergence of tolerance in pneumococci is increasing. The molecular mechanism of tolerance is not clear, but lytA and pep27 are known to be involved. Our aim was to evaluate the expression of both genes in vancomycin-tolerant Streptococcus pneumoniae (VTSP) strains. Eleven VTSP strains from a total of 309 clinical isolates of S. pneumoniae from 1997 to 2006 were classified according to the criteria of Liu and Tomasz. All VTSP strains were evaluated for susceptibility according to CLSI criteria, serotype by the Quellung test, and clonality by PFGE. The expressions of lytA and pep27 were analyzed in different growth phases by RT-PCR with and without vancomycin. Eighty-two percent of VTSP strains showed resistance to penicillin, and 100% were sensitive to vancomycin and cefotaxime. The most frequent serotypes of VTSP strains were 23F (4/11) and 6B (3/11). Clonal relationship was observed in only two strains. No significant changes were observed in pep27 expression in the three phases of growth in VTSP strains with and without vancomycin. Interestingly, pep27 expression in the stationary phase in the non-tolerant reference strain R6 was significantly higher. However, no significant differences in lytA expression were observed between VTSP and R6 strains during the phases of growth analyzed. The absence of changes in pep27 expression in VTSP strains in the stationary phase may be related to their ability to tolerate high antibiotic concentrations, and thus, they survive and remain in the host under the antibiotic selective pressure reflected in therapeutic failure.