T-pattern detection in the scientific literature of this century: A systematic review.

Introduction: Scientific literature contains mainly systematic reviews focused on substantial aspects, but there are also approaches that have combined both substantial and methodological aspects, which is our preferred option since it undeniably adds value. The aims of this study were: (1) to carry out a systematic review of the literatura on T-Pattern analysis (TPA), and (2) to explore the possible contribution of mixed methods research to the integration of qualitative and quantitative elements on a synthesis level. Methods: Based on PRISMA guidelines, searches were carried out in the Scopus, PsycINFO, and Web of Science databases. The general search syntax was: "THEME" AND ("T-Patterns" OR "T Patterns") carried out in title, keywords and abstract. In addition, we included empirical articles on THEME and T-Patterns collected in other sources based on citations in several empirical works and consultations with different authors. This selection process resulted in 125 primary documents making up this systematic review. Results: The results showed that the detection of structures in behavior patterns forms a nexus between studies carried out in very diverse fields and contexts. Most studies are observational, whilst the applicability and power of T-Pattern detection are extraordinary. It allows the researcher to go deeper in a robust analysis that responds to the integration of qualitative and quantitative elements which constitutes the leit motive of mixed methods; and also to discover the deep, hidden structure that underlies the respective databases, regardless of the methodology used in each study. The possibilities in assigning parameters notably increase the options for obtaining results and their interpretation. Discussion: It is relevant the extraordinary strength and applicability of T-pattern detection. There is a high presence of T-pattern detection and analysis in studies using observational methodology. It is necessary commit to consolidating the methodological analysis of selected works, as taking individual and collective responsibility for improving methodological quality of TPA studies, taking advantage of the resources provided by the THEME program.

Evaluating in the Real-World Educational Intervention to Improve Interference Control in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) present deficiencies in interference control processes. The main aim of this pilot study was to analyze the efficacy of an educational intervention designed to optimize the interference control of eight ASD children, attending to their ASD severity level. A mixed-methods approach grounded in systematic observation and nomothetic/follow-up/multidimensional observational designs was used. An observation instrument was developed to code data, which were grouped according to the ASD severity level (Group 1, requires support; Group 2, requires substantial support) and were analyzed using a lag sequential analysis. The results show that, although both groups progressed during the intervention and could have continued to improve, each group evolved differently. Group 1 performed relatively well from the onset and increased and developed their interference control strategies throughout the intervention, while Group 2, despite also acquiring new interference control strategies, took more time to show improvements. One month after the intervention ended, both groups were unable to consolidate the strategies learned. A mixed-methods approach allowed for real interference control deficits in ASD children to be captured in a natural context. To conclude, it would be necessary to lengthen this intervention and adapt it to the needs of each group.

Executive function assessment: Adaptation of the Amsterdam executive function inventory using Spanish first-year university students from two knowledge areas.

OBJECTIVE: Many university students have difficulties in adapting to autonomous learning due to executive functioning deficits. In the Spanish university context, there is a lack of reliable validated instruments for the evaluation of executive functioning. In this sense, the aim of this research is to present the process of adaptation and validation of the Amsterdam Executive Function Inventory (AEFI) for the evaluation of executive functioning in the Spanish context. METHODS: This study integrates two sequential processes: questionnaire translation and back-translation, and evaluation of the psychometric properties (exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were conducted), reliability, validity and multigroup analysis to identify factorial invariance. An online questionnaire was used for data collection and R package lavaan software was administered to a sample of 519 first-year university students (270 females and 249 males). RESULTS: The exploratory factor analysis evidenced an interna structure of three factors with adequate internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha higher than 0.70), endorsed in the confirmatory factor analysis that indicated an adequate goodness-of-fit-indexes for the model. The composite reliability showed values between 0.74 and 0.82, and the convergent (average variance extracted values ranged from 0.50 to 0.61) and discriminant validity were adequate. A multigroup-analysis showed the invariance factorial through the difference in the RMSEA, CFI and TLI index, performed both in the model comparison according to gender and academic disciplines. CONCLUSION: The AEFI adapted for Spanish has practical implications for the management of university students, as it can facilitate the improvement of university policies designed to foster the development of executive functions, specifically in first-year students.

Teacher-Rated Executive Functions, Gender and Relative Age: Independent and Interactive Effects on Observed Fundamental Motor Skills in Kindergarteners.

Fundamental motor skills (FMS) of children can be affected by different variables, such as executive functions (EF), gender and relative age. However, the effects of these variables on FMS have been scarce studied, especially in early childhood, and show inconsistent results. To clarify these relationships, this study was carried out. Its aim was to analyze whether EF, gender and relative age influenced FMS in 43 Spanish kindergarteners. A multimethod and mixed methods approach was used. Kindergarteners' teachers completed the Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory to know the children level of EF (working memory and inhibition control). Kindergarteners' parents complimented ad hoc questionnaire reporting the children gender and birth data (to know their relative age). A Nomothetic/Punctual/Multidimensional observational design was used to observe children FMS in their habitual motor sessions at school. Two-way ANOVAs were performed to know the independent and interactive effects of working memory level (lower/higher), inhibition control level (lower/higher), gender (boys/girls) and relative age (according to the birth semester in the year) on FMS. Results showed these variables have independent and interactive effects on some FMS, but not on others. FMS influenced by these variables vary depending what independent variable(s) is/are considered. Therefore, it can be concluded that the influences of teacher-rated EF, gender and relative age on observed FMS in kindergarteners are complex and specific. Results obtained must be taken into to design and implement instructional and intervention strategies, as well as educational and sport policy changes, especially in early childhood, when FMS are more malleable.

Early Environmental and Biological Influences on Preschool Motor Skills: Implications for Early Childhood Care and Education.

Early motor skills underpin the more complex and specialized movements required for physical activity. Therefore, the design of interventions that enhance higher levels of early motor skills may encourage subsequent participation in physical activity. To do so, it is necessary to determine the influence of certain factors (some of which appear very early) on early motor skills. The objective of this study was to examine the influence of some very early environmental variables (delivery mode, feeding type during the first 4 months of life) and some biological variables (sex and age in months) on preschool motor skills, considered both globally and specifically. The sample was composed by 43 preschool students aged 5-6 years. The participant's parents completed an ad hoc questionnaire, reporting on delivery mode, feeding type, sex, and age in months. The children's motor skills were assessed using observational methodology in the school setting, while the children participated in their regular motor skills sessions. A Nomothetic/Punctual/Multidimensional observational design was used. Results revealed that certain preschool motor skills were specifically influenced by delivery mode, feeding type, sex, and age. Children born by vaginal delivery showed higher scores than children born via C-section in throwing (p = 0.000; d = 0.63); total control of objects (p = 0.004; d = 0.97); total gross motor skills (p = 0.005; d = 0.95); and total motor skills (p = 0.002; d = 1.04). Children who were exclusively breastfed outperformed those who were formula-fed in throwing (p = 0.016; d = 0.75); visual-motor integration (p = 0.005; d = 0.94); total control of objects (p = 0.002; d = 1.02); total gross motor skills (p = 0.023; d = 0.82); and total motor skills (p = 0.042; d = 0.74). Boys outperformed girls in throwing (p = 0.041; d = 0.74) and total control of objects (p = 0.024; d = 0.63); while the opposite occurred in static balance (p = 0.000; d = 1.2); visual-motor coordination (p = 0.020; d = 0.79); and total fine motor skills (p = 0.032; d = 0.72). Older children (aged 69-74 months) obtained higher scores than younger ones (aged 63-68 months) in dynamic balance (p = 0.030; d = 0.66); visual-motor integration (p = 0.034; d = 0.63); and total balance (p = 0.013; d = 0.75). Implications for early childhood care and education are discussed since this is a critical period for motor skill development and learning.

Academic Achievement in Spanish Secondary School Students: The Inter-Related Role of Executive Functions, Physical Activity and Gender.

There is a growing interest in determining which variables contribute to students' academic performance, since this performance is associated with their wellbeing and with the progress of the nation. This study analyzed whether different variables (executive functions and physical activity levels, gender and academic year) of 177 Spanish Compulsory Secondary School students contributed to their academic performance. The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function 2 (BRIEF-2), Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents (PAQ-A) and an ad hoc questionnaire were used to determine the students' executive functioning, physical activity level, gender and academic year, respectively. Students' grades were considered to be indicators of their academic achievement. Seven multiple linear regression models were constructed using the R computing language to examine the association between academic achievement (considered in each of the 5 subjects: Language, Mathematics, Geography and History, English and Physical Education; the mean of the instrumental subjects-Language and Mathematics-and the mean of all the subjects) and the independent variables. The results indicated that executive functions, physical activity and gender contributed to academic performance, but academic year did not. This suggests that students with good executive functions, who perform physical activity and are female, would have better academic achievement. This information should be considered when designing interventions to improve student academic achievement.

Association Between Preschoolers' Specific Fine (But Not Gross) Motor Skills and Later Academic Competencies: Educational Implications.

Motor development is an inseparable component of cognitive development. So, to develop the mind, it is necessary to work the body. Therefore, Early Childhood Education curricula and the scientific literature emphasize the need to promote the development of motor skills during the 1st years of life. These skills are necessary for learning and subsequent academic performance. However, studies frequently offer only a partial view of these relationships. Few works have analyzed the specific relationships between different components of preschool gross and fine motor skills and subsequent performance on different academic competencies. Further, they present discrepant results. The aim of this study was to determinate which specific components of gross and fine motor skills assessed in Spanish students during the final year of Early Childhood Education (5 to 6-year-olds) were associated with different academic competencies assessed in the following academic year, when the students were in their 1st year of Primary Education. The final sample consisted of 38 Spanish students, aged 5. A mixed methods approach was used. It consisted of systematic observation to assess specific components of gross and fine motor skills when children were in the Early Childhood Education period, and selective methodology to evaluate their academic competencies (specifically in literacy and mathematics and overall), 1 year later, once in Primary Education. Multiple linear regression models were constructed using the computing language R to examine the association between motor skills and academic competencies. The results indicated that only the components of fine motor skills showed associations with academic competencies. The pattern of association varied when literacy and mathematics competencies were specifically and individually assessed and when overall academic competency was considered. The two assessed fine motor skills (Coordination and Integration) were associated with literacy competency (ß = 0.344, p = 0.025; ß = 0.349, p = 0.024, respectively) and overall academic competency (ß = 0.267, p = 0.065; ß = 0.493, p = 0.001, respectively). However, only Integration was associated with mathematics competency (ß = 0.476, p = 0.002). The "Discussion" section focuses on the educational implications of these results and future research. It highlights the importance of early assessment of fine motor skills to identify students likely to present inadequate subsequent academic performance and the need to apply instruction and interventions tailored to the specific needs of each child.

Preschool Metacognitive Skill Assessment in Order to Promote Educational Sensitive Response From Mixed-Methods Approach: Complementarity of Data Analysis.

A child's metacognitive skills contribute significantly to their learning and success. However, very few studies are focused on these skills at early education and most of them are carried out from inappropriate methodological perspectives for the characteristics of the youngest students. To overcome such limitations, it is essential to carry out observational studies that analyze children's metacognitive behaviors in the natural and habitual context of children's learning, as well as appropriate tasks for their level of development. The aim of this study was to analyze the sequential and associative structure of the metacognitive skills used by 5-year-old children throughout the resolution of a playful task (a puzzle). It was interesting to know if there were different hidden structures in the use of metacognitive skills in the children who solved the puzzle and those who did not. From the methodological approach, this work was located in the perspective of mixed methods which is characterized by the integration of qualitative and quantitative elements. This integration was carried out from the "connect" option. The integration involved developing quantitizing, as one of its possibilities. Recent scientific literature has considered systematic observation, in which the QUAL-QUAN-QUAL macro stages take place, as a mixed method itself. Consequently, systematic observation was applied, because it was suitable for our aim. A Nomothetic/Punctual/Multidimensional observational design was used. The playful activity of 44 preschool children solving the puzzle individually was coded. It allowed us to obtain data matrices that respond to the QUAL stage. Regarding the QUAN stage, once the quality of data was controlled, the records were further analyzed by differentiating two groups of participants (those who had solved the puzzle and those who did not) using three quantitative techniques of observational analysis (T-pattern detection, lag sequential analysis, polar coordinate analysis). Finally data was returned to a QUAL stage to interpret the results. The use of these three techniques allowed a detailed and in-depth analysis of the children's activity. Results reveal differences in the metacognitive abilities of the children that solved and didn't solve the puzzle. These results have important implications for educational practice.

Improvement of Planning Skills in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder After an Educational Intervention: A Study From a Mixed Methods Approach.

The literature confirms that individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have planning deficits. However, few interventions have targeted these deficits. The aims of this study were to: (1) show that the mixed methods approach can be useful in studying planning skills of children with ASD during and after an educational intervention; (2) assess whether the planning skills of two groups of children with ASD improved during the intervention and if this progress was maintained 1 month after completing the intervention. The groups were formed depending on each child's severity level (SL) of ASD according to DSM-5: SL1 (requiring support) and SL2 (requiring substantial support). Each group was composed of four children. In the framework of mixed methods, we used observational methodology, which is considered as mixed methods in itself because it integrates qualitative and quantitative elements. A nomothetic/follow-up/multidimensional observational design was used. Planning skills manifested by children during the intervention were codified, as well as the scaffolding behaviors provided by the educational specialist. These skills and behaviors were also coded in one session, which took place 1 month after the intervention. Coded data of each group were submitted to prospective and retrospective lag sequential analysis. This informed of the sequential structure of planning skills performed by children in interaction with the educational specialist at the beginning and at the end of the intervention, as well as 1 month later after the intervention. The comparison of the patterns obtained in these three temporal moments allowed us to know the improvement of the two groups in the use of planning skills. Results showed that both groups improved their autonomous use of planning skills. However, SL1 group used successfully and autonomously complex planning skills, while SL2 group were unable to achieve this gain. SL2 group progressed in autonomy, but only using basic planning skills. Both groups can further improve their use of planning skills; therefore, the intervention should be adjusted to their characteristics and temporarily extended. These findings contribute to the, as yet, little studied field of intervention and assessment of planning skills in children with ASD using a mixed methods approach.

Observational data analysis using generalizability theory and general and mixed linear models: an empirical study of infant learning and development / Análisis de datos observacionales mediante la Teoría de la Generalizabilidad y la utilización del Modelo Lineal General y Mixto: Un estudio empírico del desarrollo y aprendizaje infantil

Accurate evaluation of early childhood competencies is essential for favoring optimal development, as the first years of life form the foundations for later learning and development. Nonetheless, there are still certain limitations and deficiencies related to how infant learning and development are measured. With the aim of helping to overcome some of the difficulties, in this article we describe the potential and advantages of new data analysis techniques for checking the quality of data collected by the systematic observation of infants and assessing variability. Logical and executive activity of 48 children was observed in three ages (18, 21 and 24 months) using a nomothetic, follow-up and multidimensional observational design. Given the nature of the data analyzed, we provide a detailed methodological and analytical overview of generalizability theory from three perspectives linked to observational methodology: intra- and inter-observer reliability, instrument validity, and sample size estimation, with a particular focus on the participant facet. The aim was to identify the optimal number of facets and levels needed to perform a systematic observational study of very young children. We also discuss the use of other techniques such as general and mixed linear models to analyze variability of learning and development. Results show how the use of Generalizability Theory allows controlling the quality of observational data in a global structure integrating reliability, validity and generalizability (AU)

Una adecuada evaluación de las competencias infantiles tempranas es esencial para potenciar un desarrollo óptimo, pues los primeros años de vida son la base de todo el desarrollo y aprendizaje posterior. Sin embargo, todavía existen ciertas limitaciones y deficiencias en el ámbito de la medición del desarrollo y aprendizaje infantil. Con el objetivo último de contribuir a la mejora de esta situación, este trabajo presenta las posibilidades y ventajas que ofrecen nuevas técnicas de análisis de datos, tanto para controlar la calidad de los datos infantiles registrados a través de observación sistemática como para analizar su variabilidad. Se ha observado en tres edades diferentes (18, 21 y 24 meses) la actividad lógica y ejecutiva de 48 niños usando un diseño observacional nomotético, de seguimiento y multidimensional. Dadas las particularidades de los datos del estudio que presentamos, desde el punto de vista metodológico y su análisis, realizamos análisis pormenorizados a través de la Teoría de la Generalizabilidad en tres vertientes posibles en un estudio observacional: Análisis de la fiabilidad intra e interobservadores, Análisis de la validez del instrumento de observación y Estimación muestral de las facetas estudiadas (en concreto, la de participantes). De esta forma, se pretende optimizar el número de facetas y niveles necesarios para llevar a cabo un estudio de tales características. Además, se utilizan otras técnicas analíticas para conocer la variabilidad del desarrollo y aprendizaje infantil, como son el Modelo Lineal General y el Modelo MIXED. Los resultados indican cómo el uso de la Teoría de la Generalizabilidad permite controlar la calidad de los datos observacionales en una estructura única que integra la fiabilidad, validad y generalizabilidad (AU)

Systematic Observation: Relevance of This Approach in Preschool Executive Function Assessment and Association with Later Academic Skills.

Executive functions (EFs) are high-level cognitive processes that allow us to coordinate our actions, thoughts, and emotions, enabling us to perform complex tasks. An increasing number of studies have highlighted the role of EFs in building a solid foundation for subsequent development and learning and shown that EFs are associated with good adjustment and academic skills. The main objective of this study was to analyze whether EF levels in 44 Spanish children in the last year of preschool were associated with levels of literacy and math skills the following year, that is, in the first year of compulsory education. We used a multi-method design, which consisted of systematic observation to observe preschool children during play and selective methodology to assess their reading, writing, and math skills in the first year of compulsory primary education. General linear modeling was used to estimate the percentage of variability in academic skills in the first year of primary school that was explained by preschool EF abilities. The results showed that preschool EF level, together with participants and the instrument used to assess academic skills, explained 99% of the variance of subsequent academic performance. Another objective was to determine whether our findings were generalizable to the reference population. To make this determination, we estimated the optimal sample size for assessing preschool EFs. To do this, we performed a generalizability analysis. The resulting generalizability coefficient showed that our sample of 44 students was sufficient for assessing preschool EFs. Therefore, our results are generalizable to the reference population. Our results are consistent with previous reports that preschool EF abilities may be associated with subsequent literacy and math skills. Early assessment of EFs may therefore contribute to identifying children who are likely to experience later learning difficulties and guide the design of suitable interventions for the optimization of EFs.

The longitudinal measurement of change: Intraindividual variability in behavior and interindividual differences observed in childhood / Diseños de observación longitudinales: cambio intra-individual y diferencias inter-individuales observados durante la infancia

The study of change in repeated measures studies or longitudinal studies (cross-sectional and/or cross-sequential) is of considerable interest in the field of developmental psychology. Qualitative and quantitative measures of interindividual and intraindividual variability can be used to capture changes in cognitive development. In the present study, through an empirical analysis of infant cognitive development, we investigate whether or not longitudinal (crosssectional/cross-sequential) research designs can be used interchangeably with univariate or multivariate data analysis techniques. Methodologically, longitudinal data can be processed by univariate or multivariate analysis. However, the results and their interpretation may be different, even when the necessary statistical requirements are performed. Current statistical programs incorporate techniques to test for the presence of significant differences in data, regardless of whether these are evaluated by univariate or multivariate analysis. The results of this study, conducted in infants studied at three time points (18, 21 and 24 months), show that both intraindividual and interindividual variability can be detected by repeated measures analyses

El estudio del cambio en estudios de medidas repetidas o estudios longitudinales (cross-sectional y/o cross-sequential) constituye un área de notable interés en el ámbito de la Psicología del Desarrollo. Las medidas (cualitativas/cuantitativas) que tomamos de participantes, bien intraindividualmente bien interindividualmente, permiten capturar cambios del desarrollo cognitivo. Mediante un estudio empírico de desarrollo cognitivo infantil, comprobaremos si los diseños longitudinales (cross-sectional/cross-sequential) pueden utilizarse o no indistintamente con técnicas de análisis de datos uni- o multivariables. Metodológicamente es posible tratar datos longitudinales en alguna de las soluciones aportadas, uni o multivariable. Sin embargo, y aún cumpliendo los requisitos estadísticos necesarios, los resultados y la interpretación de los mismos pueden ser diferentes. Entendemos que hay soluciones en los programas estadísticos actuales que permiten la utilización de técnicas que aseguren si realmente hay diferencias significativas o no en los datos, independientemente de si son tratados con estructuras uni- o multivariables. Los resultados de bebés estudiados en tres momentos temporales (18, 21 y 24 meses) mediante medidas repetidas muestran que la interpretación afecta de igual manera a datos de la variabilidad intra/interindividual

La resolución de problemas como estrategia de enseñanza para el aprendizaje de la táctica ofensiva en la categoría pre-benjamín de fútbol 8 / Problem solving as a strategy in teaching offensive tactics at the under 8 level in 8-a-side-soccer / A resolução de problemas como estratégia de ensino para a aprendizagem táctica ofensiva no escalão traquinas de futebol de 8

Este trabajo se centra en la enseñanza de la táctica ofensiva en fútbol. La acción de ataque u ofensiva del fútbol constituye una estrategia de juego fundamental y de gran complejidad en este deporte, por todos los elementos que son necesarios coordinar. Se pretende conocer qué desarrollo se produce en dicha acción ofensiva en un equipo de fútbol 8 de categoría pre-benjamín durante la implementación en los entrenamientos de una serie de ejercicios utilizando el entrenador un estilo de enseñanza de resolución de problemas. Los resultados indican mejoras en los dos elementos trabajados que forman parte de dicha táctica: 1) conservar el balón y 2) progresar el balón y los jugadores hacia portería, avanzando desde la zona media adelantada a la zona adelantada del campo contrario, si bien el aprendizaje del primer elemento se manifiesta en sesiones anteriores al del segundo elemento. Es necesario completar el entrenamiento de esta táctica con su tercer elemento (lanzar a portería) y conocer la transferencia de todo ello a situaciones más complejas como son los partidos

This study focuses on teaching offensive tactics in soccer. Attacking tactics are a key strategic aspect of play in this sport and, given the number of factors that need to be coordinated, they are highly complex moves. The aim here was to study the way in which attacks were constructed during 8-a-side training sessions at the under 8 level where the coach used a series of drills based on the problem-solving approach to teaching. The results revealed improvements in two techniques that were worked on as part of offensive strategies, namely 1) keeping the ball, and 2) moving the ball and players towards the opponent’s goal and, more specifically, the transition from an advanced midfield position to the attacking zone. The first of these techniques was shown to have been learnt prior to the second. Teaching attacking tactics needs to be complemented with a third technique (shooting at goal), and an analysis must be made of the extent to which all these skills are transferred to more complex match situations

Estilo de ensino de resolução de problemas, Futebol, Metodologia observacional, Padrão comportamental, Táctica ofensiva. RESUMO: Este trabalho centra-se no ensino da táctica ofensiva no futebol. A acção de ataque ou ofensiva no futebol constitui-se como uma estratégia fundamental do jogo e de grande complexidade neste desporto, por todos os elementos que são necessários coordenar. Pretende-se conhecer que desenvolvimento se produz na acção ofensiva numa equipa de futebol 8 no escalão de Traquinas durante a implementação em contexto de treino de uma série de exercícios, utilizando o treinador um estilo de ensino de resolução de problemas. Os resultados indicam melhorias nos dois elementos trabalhados que fazem parte desta táctica: 1) conservar a posse de bola e 2) progredir com bola até à baliza adversária, avançando desde a zona intermédia até à zona avançada do campo contrário. É necessário complementar o treino desta táctica com um terceiro elemento (remate à baliza) e conhecer o transfer de todas estas situações para um contexto mais complexo como são os jogos

[Contributions of neuroscience to the learning of numerical abilities]. / Aportaciones de la neurociencia al aprendizaje de las habilidades numericas.

INTRODUCTION: Mathematic difficulties are relatively frequent at school. With some frequency they appear associated to other troubles and learning disorders, thus provoking anxiety feelings in children. In case of not intervening on such difficulties their consequences may be extended until adulthood. Despite that, their intervention has not been widely administered, notably in the educational ambit. The main reason is that there is not a unique definition, which makes their detection not easy. However, some of the recent advances in neuroscience could improve this situation. AIM: To review and summarize the main contributions provided by the neuroimaging techniques to the learning of numerical abilities and their difficulties, and how these techniques could be useful to intervene on the educational practice. DEVELOPMENT: The ample advances of the neuroimaging techniques have allowed us the access to relevant information regarding the brain areas underlying each numerical task at childhood and at adulthood, and that made possible the design of intervention programs addressed to improve children' learning when there are any numerical difficulties. Some of the results obtained after the administration of these programs are positive, but they are not very generalizable yet. CONCLUSIONS: In the future it should be expanded the use of neuroimaging techniques in order to implement the explanation of learning processes and detecting areas that, in case of not being correctly activated, could lead to any mathematic difficulties. Ultimately, research supported by these techniques should assist the development of programs devoted to intervene on mathematics in the educational field.

TITLE: Aportaciones de la neurociencia al aprendizaje de las habilidades numericas.Introduccion. Las dificultades en matematicas son relativamente frecuentes en el aula. Pueden aparecer asociadas a otros trastornos y retrasos del desarrollo, provocando sentimientos de ansiedad. En caso de no intervenir sobre ellas, sus efectos pueden prolongarse durante la adultez. A pesar de ello, su intervencion no es frecuente, especialmente desde el ambito educativo, dado que al no existir una definicion unica de ellas, su deteccion en el aula no es facil. Algunos de los ultimos avances en neurociencia podrian mejorar esta situacion. Objetivo. Revisar y recapitular los principales conocimientos aportados por las tecnicas de neuroimagen al campo del aprendizaje de las habilidades numericas, sus dificultades y su intervencion en el ambito educativo. Desarrollo. El gran avance experimentado por las tecnicas de neuroimagen ha permitido conocer informacion importante respecto a las areas cerebrales que subyacen a cada tarea numerica en la infancia y en la edad adulta, lo que a su vez ha posibilitado el diseño de programas de intervencion en las dificultades en el aprendizaje de las matematicas. A pesar de que los resultados obtenidos tras su aplicacion son positivos, todavia no son generalizables. Conclusiones. En el futuro debe extenderse el uso de las tecnicas de neuroimagen en la explicacion del proceso de aprendizaje y deteccion de las areas que, de no activarse correctamente, pueden derivar en trastornos de las matematicas. En ultimo termino, la investigacion con dichas tecnicas debe favorecer el desarrollo de programas aplicados al trabajo de las matematicas en el ambito educativo.

Aportaciones de la neurociencia al aprendizaje de las habilidades numéricas / Contributions of neuroscience to the learning of numerical abilities

Introducción. Las dificultades en matemáticas son relativamente frecuentes en el aula. Pueden aparecer asociadas a otros trastornos y retrasos del desarrollo, provocando sentimientos de ansiedad. En caso de no intervenir sobre ellas, sus efectos pueden prolongarse durante la adultez. A pesar de ello, su intervención no es frecuente, especialmente desde el ámbito educativo, dado que al no existir una definición única de ellas, su detección en el aula no es fácil. Algunos de los últimos avances en neurociencia podrían mejorar esta situación. Objetivo. Revisar y recapitular los principales conocimientos aportados por las técnicas de neuroimagen al campo del aprendizaje de las habilidades numéricas, sus dificultades y su intervención en el ámbito educativo. Desarrollo. El gran avance experimentado por las técnicas de neuroimagen ha permitido conocer información importante respecto a las áreas cerebrales que subyacen a cada tarea numérica en la infancia y en la edad adulta, lo que a su vez ha posibilitado el diseño de programas de intervención en las dificultades en el aprendizaje de las matemáticas. A pesar de que los resultados obtenidos tras su aplicación son positivos, todavía no son generalizables. Conclusiones. En el futuro debe extenderse el uso de las técnicas de neuroimagen en la explicación del proceso de aprendizaje y detección de las áreas que, de no activarse correctamente, pueden derivar en trastornos de las matemáticas. En último término, la investigación con dichas técnicas debe favorecer el desarrollo de programas aplicados al trabajo de las matemáticas en el ámbito educativo (AU)

Introduction. Mathematic difficulties are relatively frequent at school. With some frequency they appear associated to other troubles and learning disorders, thus provoking anxiety feelings in children. In case of not intervening on such difficulties their consequences may be extended until adulthood. Despite that, their intervention has not been widely administered, notably in the educational ambit. The main reason is that there is not a unique definition, which makes their detection not easy. However, some of the recent advances in neuroscience could improve this situation. Aim. To review and summarize the main contributions provided by the neuroimaging techniques to the learning of numerical abilities and their difficulties, and how these techniques could be useful to intervene on the educational practice. Development. The ample advances of the neuroimaging techniques have allowed us the access to relevant information regarding the brain areas underlying each numerical task at childhood and at adulthood, and that made possible the design of intervention programs addressed to improve children’ learning when there are any numerical difficulties. Some of the results obtained after the administration of these programs are positive, but they are not very generalizable yet. Conclusions. In the future it should be expanded the use of neuroimaging techniques in order to implement the explanation of learning processes and detecting areas that, in case of not being correctly activated, could lead to any mathematic difficulties. Ultimately, research supported by these techniques should assist the development of programs devoted to intervene on mathematics in the educational field (AU)

[Maternal brain and its implications for the human development]. / El cerebro materno y sus implicaciones en el desarrollo humano.

INTRODUCTION: One of the primary needs of human beings is setting emotional bonds perceived as unconditional and ever-lasting. In the first moment of life, if development is harmonious, this need is satisfied by the care and attention received from the mother. Several studies have demonstrated how importance it is for the emotional development of the child and of the species in general. AIM: To review the main knowledge provided by several current researches on neurobiological changes that occurs in the mother to ensure the optimal development of the offspring. DEVELOPMENT: Data from different sources show that even during pregnancy, childbirth and the very first mother-child interactions, structural, functional and neuroendocrine changes are noticed at the maternal brain which predispose the mother for her baby's care and attention. These maternal brain changes affect the infant brain, and therefore, the development as much in the childhood years as later. Furthermore, the effects of these early mother-child interactions on brain and child development are even transgenerational. CONCLUSIONS: Despite these important results which show maternal brain plasticity and the relevance of their social, educational and health implications, there is still a long way to go in order to understand the processes in the maternal brain and its influence on the child development. Interdisciplinary labor is required to answer these questions and consequently, to improve human development.

El cerebro materno y sus implicaciones en el desarrollo humano / Maternal brain and its implications for the human development

Introducción. Una de las necesidades primarias del ser humano es establecer vínculos afectivos percibidos como incondicionales y duraderos. En los primeros momentos de vida, si el desarrollo tiene lugar de modo armónico, esta necesidad se satisface a través del cuidado y atención recibidos de la madre. Diversos estudios han demostrado su importancia para el desarrollo socioemocional del niño y de la especie en general. Objetivo. Revisar algunos de los principales conocimientos aportados por distintas investigaciones actuales acerca de los cambios neurobiológicos que tienen lugar en la madre destinados a garantizar el desarrollo óptimo de la descendencia. Desarrollo. Datos de distinta naturaleza muestran que ya incluso en la gestación, el parto y durante las primeras interacciones maternofiliales, se producen cambios estructurales, funcionales y neuroendocrinos en el cerebro materno que predisponen a la madre hacia el cuidado y atención de su bebé, llegando a afectar al cerebro infantil y su desarrollo en los años infantiles y en los posteriores, siendo incluso transgeneracionales los efectos de estas primeras interacciones maternofiliales sobre el cerebro y desarrollo infantil. Conclusiones. A pesar de evidenciarse la plasticidad cerebral materna y la relevancia de sus implicaciones en los ámbitos sociales, educativos y de la salud, todavía queda mucho por conocer acerca de los procesos que participan en el cerebro materno y su influencia en el desarrollo del niño. Es necesario un trabajo interdisciplinar que permita dar respuesta a estos interrogantes y, consecuentemente, optimizar el desarrollo humano (AU)

Introduction. One of the primary needs of human beings is setting emotional bonds perceived as unconditional and everlasting. In the first moment of life, if development is harmonious, this need is satisfied by the care and attention received from the mother. Several studies have demonstrated how importance it is for the emotional development of the child and of the species in general. Aim. To review the main knowledge provided by several current researches on neurobiological changes that occurs in the mother to ensure the optimal development of the offspring. Development. Data from different sources show that even during pregnancy, childbirth and the very first mother-child interactions, structural, functional and neuroendocrine changes are noticed at the maternal brain which predispose the mother for her baby’s care and attention. These maternal brain changes affect the infant brain, and therefore, the development as much in the childhood years as later. Furthermore, the effects of these early mother-child interactions on brain and child development are even transgenerational. Conclusions. Despite these important results which show maternal brain plasticity and the relevance of their social, educational and health implications, there is still a long way to go in order to understand the processes in the maternal brain and its influence on the child development. Interdisciplinary labor is required to answer these questions and consequently, to improve human development (AU)

Early infant cognitive assessment: validity of an instrument.

The present study represents a contribution to the assessment of infant cognitive development by presenting a valid instrument for observing the development of logical reasoning and executive function during the second year of life-key processes in the construction of human knowledge. The instrument constructed, called ELEDA (Early Logical and Executive Development Assessment), was a combined or mixed observation instrument composed of field formats and category systems. Its validity was calculated using generalizability theory, which enables different sources of error affecting a behavioral measurement to be analyzed jointly. The need for valid early cognitive assessment instruments such as the one in the present article is evident, since the sooner assessment is performed, the sooner action can be taken, thus optimizing the results.

[Executive function in early childhood and Generalizability Theory: Typical babies and preterm babies]. / Desarrollo ejecutivo temprano y Teoría de la Generalizabilidad: bebés típicos y prematuros.

In the areas of Social, Health, and Behavioral Sciences, observational designs are used as one of the best ways to study human behavior in natural and quasi-natural settings. Observing and recording a sample of individual patterns of behavior is a feature common to all of them, but a broad sampling error can be implicit, especially at early ages. Sampling errors arise also as a result of the observation of only a fraction of each possible case, and this is part of the problem involved in the estimation of generalizations of data recorded by systematic observation. The sampling process usually takes place at different stages (observers, sessions, tasks, age, etc...) and requires estimating variance components that can be combined with each other to produce one or more estimates of board coefficients. The Generalizability Theory (GT) proposes that there are many (infinite) sources of variation (facets) in any measurement. Our main objective is to identify the variance components that contribute to estimation errors and implement strategies to reduce the influence of these error sources on the measurement. Executive functioning in typical and premature babies is studied at 15 and 24 months. The results show differences between groups, sources of variation, and generalizability.

Funcionamiento cognitivo en bebés gemelos con discordancia de peso / Early cognitive functioning in twins with birth weight discordance

Introducción. El desarrollo temprano se estudia funcional y comparativamente desde una perspectiva neuroconstructivista. Esta aproximación interdisciplinar y neuropsicológica relaciona la arquitectura cerebral y el funcionamiento de los procesos cognitivos. Las operaciones lógicas y las funciones ejecutivas facilitan la actividad cognitiva acorde con la progresiva configuración y maduración cerebral prenatal y posnatal. Objetivo. Estudiar el desarrollo lógico y de la función ejecutiva de resistencia a la interferencia en niños típicos y niñosgemelos con discordancia de peso al nacer ya que puede afectar a su desarrollo armónico, manifestándose en dificultades de aprendizaje y control conductual. Sujetos y métodos. Se registra longitudinalmente (18, 21 y 24 meses) la resolución en tres tareas no verbales de 48 niños típicos y 32 niños gemelos con discordancia de peso al nacer. Se analiza comparativamente su nivel de competencia, así como el de los hermanos gemelos según su mayor o menor peso intrapar, mediante el análisis microgenético y el análisis multivariado. Resultados. La resolución de las tareas es similar a nivel lógico pero se ve afectada por la resistencia a la interferencia, menor a los 21 meses en los niños gemelos respecto a los niños típicos, con mejoras a los 24 meses. Comparando los gemelos entre sí, a los 18 meses, los de menor peso alcanzan el mismo contenido en menor porcentaje. Conclusiones. Los niños gemelos con discordancia de peso al nacer logran un funcionamiento lógico y ejecutivo similar al de los niños típicos, aunque más demorado en el tiempo y menor resistencia a la interferencia (AU)

Introduction. The neuroconstructivist approach studies early childhood comparative development from an interdisciplinary and neuropsychological perspective in order to relate neurological architecture to cognitive functioning. Aim. Logical development and resistance to interference as a component of executive functions are studied comparatively in typical babies and twins born with weight discordance to analyze its effects on development, learning and behaviour control. Subjects and methods. The task’s resolution is registered when babies are 18, 21 and 24 months of age. Microgenetic and multivariate analysis compares, on the one hand, 48 typical babies to growth discordant twins and, on the other, 32 twins to one another. Results. Intergroup task resolution is similar with regard to logical development in both groups under analysis but resistance to interference is lower in growth discordant twins than in typical babies and, when twins are compared to one another, twins with lower weight show more difficulties regarding logical resolution. Conclusion. Twin babies show less resistance to interference than typical babies and similar but delayed in time logicalfunctioning (AU)