TNFα induced by DNA-sensing in macrophage compromises retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) barrier function.

Increasing evidence suggests that chronic inflammation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration (AMD); however, the precise pathogenic stressors and sensors, and their impact on disease progression remain unclear. Several studies have demonstrated that type I interferon (IFN) response is activated in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) of AMD patients. Previously, we demonstrated that human RPE cells can initiate RNA-mediated type I IFN responses through RIG-I, yet are unable to directly sense and respond to DNA. In this study, we utilized a co-culture system combining primary human macrophage and iPS-derived RPE to study how each cell type responds to nucleic acids challenges and their effect on RPE barrier function in a homotypic and heterotypic manner. We find that DNA-induced macrophage activation induces an IFN response in the RPE, and compromises RPE barrier function via tight-junction remodeling. Investigation of the secreted cytokines responsible for RPE dysfunction following DNA-induced macrophages activation indicates that neutralization of macrophage-secreted TNFα, but not IFNß, is sufficient to rescue RPE morphology and barrier function. Our data reveals a novel mechanism of intercellular communication by which DNA induces RPE dysfunction via macrophage-secreted TNFa, highlighting the complexity and potential pathological relevance of RPE and macrophage interactions.

A proteogenomic signature of age-related macular degeneration in blood.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is one of the most common causes of visual impairment in the elderly, with a complex and still poorly understood etiology. Whole-genome association studies have discovered 34 genomic regions associated with AMD. However, the genes and cognate proteins that mediate the risk, are largely unknown. In the current study, we integrate levels of 4782 human serum proteins with all genetic risk loci for AMD in a large population-based study of the elderly, revealing many proteins and pathways linked to the disease. Serum proteins are also found to reflect AMD severity independent of genetics and predict progression from early to advanced AMD after five years in this population. A two-sample Mendelian randomization study identifies several proteins that are causally related to the disease and are directionally consistent with the observational estimates. In this work, we present a robust and unique framework for elucidating the pathobiology of AMD.

Cumulative mitochondrial activity correlates with ototoxin susceptibility in zebrafish mechanosensory hair cells.

Mitochondria play a prominent role in mechanosensory hair cell damage and death. Although hair cells are thought to be energetically demanding cells, how mitochondria respond to these demands and how this might relate to cell death is largely unexplored. Using genetically encoded indicators, we found that mitochondrial calcium flux and oxidation are regulated by mechanotransduction and demonstrate that hair cell activity has both acute and long-term consequences on mitochondrial function. We tested whether variation in mitochondrial activity reflected differences in the vulnerability of hair cells to the toxic drug neomycin. We observed that susceptibility did not correspond to the acute level of mitochondrial activity but rather to the cumulative history of that activity.

Fluorescent aminoglycosides reveal intracellular trafficking routes in mechanosensory hair cells.

Aminoglycosides (AGs) are broad-spectrum antibiotics that are associated with kidney damage, balance disorders, and permanent hearing loss. This damage occurs primarily by killing of proximal tubule kidney cells and mechanosensory hair cells, though the mechanisms underlying cell death are not clear. Imaging molecules of interest in living cells can elucidate how molecules enter cells, traverse intracellular compartments, and interact with sites of activity. Here, we have imaged fluorescently labeled AGs in live zebrafish mechanosensory hair cells. We determined that AGs enter hair cells via both nonendocytic and endocytic pathways. Both routes deliver AGs from the extracellular space to lysosomes, and structural differences between AGs alter the efficiency of this delivery. AGs with slower delivery to lysosomes were immediately toxic to hair cells, and impeding lysosome delivery increased AG-induced death. Therefore, pro-death cascades induced at early time points of AG exposure do not appear to derive from the lysosome. Our findings help clarify how AGs induce hair cell death and reveal properties that predict toxicity. Establishing signatures for AG toxicity may enable more efficient evaluation of AG treatment paradigms and structural modifications to reduce hair cell damage. Further, this work demonstrates how following fluorescently labeled drugs at high resolution in living cells can reveal important details about how drugs of interest behave.

Mitochondrial calcium uptake underlies ROS generation during aminoglycoside-induced hair cell death.

Exposure to aminoglycoside antibiotics can lead to the generation of toxic levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) within mechanosensory hair cells of the inner ear that have been implicated in hearing and balance disorders. Better understanding of the origin of aminoglycoside-induced ROS could focus the development of therapies aimed at preventing this event. In this work, we used the zebrafish lateral line system to monitor the dynamic behavior of mitochondrial and cytoplasmic oxidation occurring within the same dying hair cell following exposure to aminoglycosides. The increased oxidation observed in both mitochondria and cytoplasm of dying hair cells was highly correlated with mitochondrial calcium uptake. Application of the mitochondrial uniporter inhibitor Ru360 reduced mitochondrial and cytoplasmic oxidation, suggesting that mitochondrial calcium drives ROS generation during aminoglycoside-induced hair cell death. Furthermore, targeting mitochondria with free radical scavengers conferred superior protection against aminoglycoside exposure compared with identical, untargeted scavengers. Our findings suggest that targeted therapies aimed at preventing mitochondrial oxidation have therapeutic potential to ameliorate the toxic effects of aminoglycoside exposure.

Cilia-Associated Genes Play Differing Roles in Aminoglycoside-Induced Hair Cell Death in Zebrafish.

Hair cells possess a single primary cilium, called the kinocilium, early in development. While the kinocilium is lost in auditory hair cells of most species it is maintained in vestibular hair cells. It has generally been believed that the primary role of the kinocilium and cilia-associated genes in hair cells is in the establishment of the polarity of actin-based stereocilia, the hair cell mechanotransduction apparatus. Through genetic screening and testing of candidate genes in zebrafish (Danio rerio) we have found that mutations in multiple cilia genes implicated in intraflagellar transport (dync2h1, wdr35, ift88, and traf3ip), and the ciliary transition zone (cc2d2a, mks1, and cep290) lead to resistance to aminoglycoside-induced hair cell death. These genes appear to have differing roles in hair cells, as mutations in intraflagellar transport genes, but not transition zone genes, lead to defects in kinocilia formation and processes dependent upon hair cell mechanotransduction activity. These mutants highlight a novel role of cilia-associated genes in hair cells, and provide powerful tools for further study.

Using the zebrafish lateral line to uncover novel mechanisms of action and prevention in drug-induced hair cell death.

The majority of hearing loss and balance disorders are caused by the permanent loss of mechanosensory hair cells of the inner ear. Identification of genes and compounds that modulate susceptibility to hair cell death is frequently confounded by the difficulties of assaying for such complex phenomena in mammalian models. The zebrafish has emerged as a powerful animal model for genetic and chemical screening in many contexts. Several characteristics of the zebrafish, such as its small size and external location of mechanosensory hair cells within the lateral line sensory organ, uniquely position it as an ideal model organism for the study of hair cell toxicity. We have used this model to screen for genes and compounds that affect hair cell survival during ototoxin exposure and have identified agents that would not be expected to play a role in this process based on a priori knowledge of their function. The identification of such agents yields better understanding of hair cell death and holds promise to stem hearing loss and balance disorders in the human population.

ER-mitochondrial calcium flow underlies vulnerability of mechanosensory hair cells to damage.

Mechanosensory hair cells are vulnerable to environmental insult, resulting in hearing and balance disorders. We demonstrate that directional compartmental flow of intracellular Ca(2+) underlies death in zebrafish lateral line hair cells after exposure to aminoglycoside antibiotics, a well characterized hair cell toxin. Ca(2+) is mobilized from the ER and transferred to mitochondria via IP3 channels with little cytoplasmic leakage. Pharmacological agents that shunt ER-derived Ca(2+) directly to cytoplasm mitigate toxicity, indicating that high cytoplasmic Ca(2+) levels alone are not cytotoxic. Inhibition of the mitochondrial transition pore sensitizes hair cells to the toxic effects of aminoglycosides, contrasting with current models of excitotoxicity. Hair cells display efficient ER-mitochondrial Ca(2+) flow, suggesting that tight coupling of these organelles drives mitochondrial activity under physiological conditions at the cost of increased susceptibility to toxins.

Fish in a Dish: Drug Discovery for Hearing Habilitation.

The majority of hearing loss is caused by the permanent loss of inner ear hair cells. The identification of drugs that modulate the susceptibility to hair cell loss or spur their regeneration is often hampered by the difficulties of assaying for such complex phenomena in mammalian models. The zebrafish has emerged as a powerful animal model for chemical screening in many contexts. Several characteristics of the zebrafish, such as its small size and external location of sensory hair cells, uniquely position it as an ideal model organism for the study of hair cell toxicity, protection, and regeneration. We have used this model to screen for drugs that affect each of these aspects of hair cell biology and have identified compounds that affect each of these processes. The identification of such drugs and drug-like compounds holds promise in the future ability to stem hearing loss in the human population.

Disruption of intracellular calcium regulation is integral to aminoglycoside-induced hair cell death.

Intracellular Ca(2+) is a key regulator of life or death decisions in cultured neurons and sensory cells. The role of Ca(2+) in these processes is less clear in vivo, as the location of these cells often impedes visualization of intracellular Ca(2+) dynamics. We generated transgenic zebrafish lines that express the genetically encoded Ca(2+) indicator GCaMP in mechanosensory hair cells of the lateral line. These lines allow us to monitor intracellular Ca(2+) dynamics in real time during aminoglycoside-induced hair cell death. After exposure of live larvae to aminoglycosides, dying hair cells undergo a transient increase in intracellular Ca(2+) that occurs shortly after mitochondrial membrane potential collapse. Inhibition of intracellular Ca(2+) elevation through either caged chelators or pharmacological inhibitors of Ca(2+) effectors mitigates toxic effects of aminoglycoside exposure. Conversely, artificial elevation of intracellular Ca(2+) by caged Ca(2+) release agents sensitizes hair cells to the toxic effects of aminoglycosides. These data suggest that alterations in intracellular Ca(2+) homeostasis play an essential role in aminoglycoside-induced hair cell death, and indicate several potential therapeutic targets to stem ototoxicity.

Rack1 is required for Vangl2 membrane localization and planar cell polarity signaling while attenuating canonical Wnt activity.

The vertebrate planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway shares molecular components with the ß-catenin-mediated canonical Wnt pathway but acts through membrane complexes containing Vang or Frizzled to orient neighboring cells coordinately. The molecular interactions underlying the action of Vang in PCP signaling and specification, however, are yet to be delineated. Here, we report the identification of Rack1 as an interacting protein of a vertebrate Vang protein, Vangl2. We demonstrate that Rack1 is required in zebrafish for PCP-regulated processes, including oriented cell division, cellular polarization, and convergent extension during gastrulation. We further show that the knockdown of Rack1 affects membrane localization of Vangl2 and that the Vangl2-interacting domain of Rack1 has a dominant-negative effect on Vangl2 localization and gastrulation. Moreover, Rack1 antagonizes canonical Wnt signaling. Together, our data suggest that Rack1 regulates the localization of an essential PCP protein and acts as a molecular switch to promote PCP signaling.

dlx3b/4b are required for the formation of the preplacodal region and otic placode through local modulation of BMP activity.

The vertebrate inner ear arises from the otic placode, a transient thickening of ectodermal epithelium adjacent to neural crest domains in the presumptive head. During late gastrulation, cells fated to comprise the inner ear are part of a domain in cranial ectoderm that contain precursors of all sensory placodes, termed the preplacodal region (PPR). The combination of low levels of BMP activity coupled with high levels of FGF signaling are required to establish the PPR through induction of members of the six/eya/dach, iro, and dlx families of transcription factors. The zebrafish dlx3b/4b transcription factors are expressed at the neural plate border where they play partially redundant roles in the specification of the PPR, otic and olfactory placodes. We demonstrate that dlx3b/4b assist in establishing the PPR through the transcriptional regulation of the BMP antagonist cv2. Morpholino-mediated knockdown of Dlx3b/4b results in loss of cv2 expression in the PPR and a transient increase in Bmp4 activity that lasts throughout early somitogenesis. Through the cv2-mediated inhibition of BMP activity, dlx3b/4b create an environment where FGF activity is favorable for PPR and otic marker expression. Our results provide insight into the mechanisms of PPR specification as well as the role of dlx3b/4b function in PPR and otic placode induction.

Tailbud-derived Bmp4 drives proliferation and inhibits maturation of zebrafish chordamesoderm.

In zebrafish, BMP signaling establishes cell identity along the dorsoventral (DV) axis during gastrulation. Owing to the early requirements of BMP activity in DV patterning, it has been difficult to assign later roles in cell fate specification to specific BMP ligands. In this study, we have taken advantage of two follistatin-like genes (fstl1 and fstl2), as well as a transgenic zebrafish line carrying an inducible truncated form of the BMP-type 1 receptor to study the role of Bmp4 outside of the context of DV specification. Characterization of fstl1/2 suggests that they exert a redundant role as BMP antagonists during late gastrulation, regulating BMP activity in axial mesoderm. Maintenance of appropriate levels of BMP signaling is crucial for the proper development of chordamesoderm, a subset of axial mesoderm that gives rise to the notochord, but not prechordal mesoderm, which gives rise to the prechordal plate. Bmp4 activity in particular is required during a crucial window beginning at late gastrulation and lasting through early somitogenesis to promote chordamesoderm proliferation. In the absence of Bmp4, the notochord precursor pool is depleted, and the notochord differentiates prematurely. Our results illustrate a role for Bmp4 in the proliferation and timely differentiation of axial tissue after DV axis specification.