A systems biology analysis of the Drosophila phagosome.

Phagocytes have a critical function in remodelling tissues during embryogenesis and thereafter are central effectors of immune defence. During phagocytosis, particles are internalized into 'phagosomes', organelles from which immune processes such as microbial destruction and antigen presentation are initiated. Certain pathogens have evolved mechanisms to evade the immune system and persist undetected within phagocytes, and it is therefore evident that a detailed knowledge of this process is essential to an understanding of many aspects of innate and adaptive immunity. However, despite the crucial role of phagosomes in immunity, their components and organization are not fully defined. Here we present a systems biology analysis of phagosomes isolated from cells derived from the genetically tractable model organism Drosophila melanogaster and address the complex dynamic interactions between proteins within this organelle and their involvement in particle engulfment. Proteomic analysis identified 617 proteins potentially associated with Drosophila phagosomes; these were organized by protein-protein interactions to generate the 'phagosome interactome', a detailed protein-protein interaction network of this subcellular compartment. These networks predicted both the architecture of the phagosome and putative biomodules. The contribution of each protein and complex to bacterial internalization was tested by RNA-mediated interference and identified known components of the phagocytic machinery. In addition, the prediction and validation of regulators of phagocytosis such as the 'exocyst', a macromolecular complex required for exocytosis but not previously implicated in phagocytosis, validates this strategy. In generating this 'systems-based model', we show the power of applying this approach to the study of complex cellular processes and organelles and expect that this detailed model of the phagosome will provide a new framework for studying host-pathogen interactions and innate immunity.

Toll-like receptors as sensors of pathogens.

Initial recognition of microbes, as they enter the body, is based on germ line-encoded pattern recognition receptors that selectively bind to essential components of pathogens. This allows the body to respond immediately to the microbial invasion before the development of active immunity. The signal-transducing receptors that trigger the acute inflammatory cascade have been elusive until very recently. On the basis of their genetic similarity to the Toll signaling pathway in Drosophila, mammalian Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have been identified. By now, nine transmembrane proteins in the TLR family have been described. Mammalian TLR4 is the signal-transducing receptor activated by the bacterial lipopolysaccharide. The activation of TLR4 leads to DNA binding of the transcription factor NF-kappaB, resulting in activation of the inflammatory cascade. Activation of other TLRs is likely to have similar consequences. TLR2 mediates the host response to Gram-positive bacteria and yeast. TLR1 and TLR6 may participate in the activation of macrophages by Gram-positive bacteria, whereas TLR9 appears to respond to a specific sequence of bacterial DNA. The TLRs that control the onset of an acute inflammatory response are critical antecedents for the development of adaptive acquired immunity. Genetic and developmental variation in the expression of microbial pattern recognition receptors may affect the individual's predisposition to infections in childhood and may contribute to susceptibility to severe neonatal inflammatory diseases, allergies, and autoimmune diseases.

Mannan-binding lectin enhances susceptibility to visceral leishmaniasis.

Levels of the serum opsonin mannan-binding lectin (MBL) were directly correlated with the probability of developing visceral leishmaniasis. Monocytes infected with MBL-opsonized Leishmania chagasi promastigotes secreted higher levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-6 than cells infected with nonopsonized parasites. Our findings indicate that MBL can modulate the clinical outcome of infection with L. chagasi and the function of infected macrophages.

Recombinant expression of human mannan-binding lectin.

Mannan-binding lectin (MBL) constitutes an important part of the innate immune defence by effecting the deposition of complement on microbial surfaces. MBL deficiency is among the most common primary immunodeficiencies and is associated with recurrent infections and symptoms of poor immune complex clearance. Plasma-derived MBL has been used in reconstitution therapy but concerns over viral contamination and production capacity point to recombinant MBL (rMBL) as a future source of this protein for clinical use. Natural human MBL is an oligomer of up to 18 identical polypeptide chains. The synthesis of rMBL has been accomplished in several mammalian cell lines, however, the recombinant protein differed structurally from natural MBL. In this, study we compare rMBL produced in myeloma cells, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, human hepatocytes, and human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells. We report that rMBL structurally and functionally similar to natural MBL can be obtained through synthesis in the human embryonic kidney cells followed by selective carbohydrate affinity chromatography.

Drosophila scavenger receptor CI is a pattern recognition receptor for bacteria.

One hallmark of innate immunity apparently conserved from primitive life forms through to humans is the ability of the host to recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Since macrophage pattern recognition receptors are not well defined in Drosophila, we set out to identify such receptors. Our findings reveal that Drosophila macrophages express multiple pattern recognition receptors and that the Drosophila scavenger receptor, dSR-CI, is one such receptor capable of recognizing both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, but not yeast. Our data indicate that scavenger receptor bacterial recognition is conserved from insects to humans and may represent one of the most primitive forms of microbial recognition.

Pneumocystis carinii enhances soluble mannose receptor production by macrophages.

Phagocytosis of extracellular organisms in the alveolar spaces of the lungs represents the first-line of host defense against pulmonary pathogens. Disruption of this process is likely to interfere with the generation of appropriate specific immune responses, and lead to a delayed or inefficient clearance of the pathogen. Pneumocystis carinii, an opportunistic pathogen in immunodeficient individuals, is cleared from the lung by alveolar macrophages. In the absence of specific anti-Pneumocystis antibodies, phagocytosis is dependent on the non-opsonic macrophage mannose receptor (MR). Recent studies have demonstrated that alveolar macrophage MR activity is downregulated in individuals infected with HIV, and that functional MR is shed from the macrophage cell surface. Here we report that P. carinii enhances the formation of soluble MR by macrophages in vitro. Soluble MR was detected in cell-free alveolar fluid from humans infected with HIV and/or P. carinii, but not in alveolar fluid from healthy controls. Soluble MR was found in association with extracellular clumps of P. carinii in the lungs of mice with P. carinii pneumonia, and was associated with P. carinii organisms purified from these mice. When purified P. carinii organisms were incubated with soluble MR-containing supernatants, they were phagocytosed less readily by alveolar macrophages than were control organisms. Our results suggest that P. carinii organisms enhance the shedding of MR from the surface of alveolar macrophages, and that the resultant soluble MR binds to intra-alveolar organisms, thereby interfering with their non-opsonic uptake via the macrophage cell surface MR.

A soluble mannose receptor immunoadhesin enhances phagocytosis of Pneumocystis carinii by human polymorphonuclear leukocytes in vitro.

Pneumocystis carinii is an opportunistic pathogen that causes pneumonia in immunocompromised hosts. In the normal host, P. carinii is susceptible to an array of first line host defense mechanisms that are operative in the lung. Alveolar macrophages play a central role in the clearance of inhaled organisms. The macrophage mannose receptor (MR) appears to be sufficient for P. carinii phagocytosis. In individuals infected with the human immunodeficiency virus, MR expression on alveolar macrophages and P. carinii phagocytosis are decreased, however, Fc-receptor mediated phagocytosis remains intact. In this study, we demonstrate that a recombinant soluble MR immunoadhesin, consisting of the essential carbohydrate binding MR ectodomain and the Fc-region of human immunoglobulin (Ig)G1, binds P. carinii and leads to an 8.2-fold increased uptake of P. carinii by phagocytic cells. Our results suggest that the soluble MR immunoadhesin may have therapeutic potential in the treatment of P. carinii infections.

Enhanced antiviral and opsonic activity of a human mannose-binding lectin and surfactant protein D chimera.

The carbohydrate recognition domains (CRDs) of human serum mannose-binding lectin (MBL) and pulmonary surfactant protein D (SP-D) have distinctive monosaccharide-binding properties, and their N-terminal and collagen domains have very different quaternary structures. We produced a chimeric protein containing the N terminus and collagen domain of human SP-D and the neck region and CRD of human MBL (SP-D/MBLneck+CRD) to create a novel human collectin. The chimera bound to influenza A virus (IAV), inhibited IAV hemagglutination activity and infectivity, and induced aggregation of viral particles to a much greater extent than MBL. Furthermore, SP-D/MBLneck+CRD caused much greater increases in neutrophil uptake of, and respiratory burst responses to, IAV than MBL. These results indicate that pathogen interactions mediated by the MBL CRD are strongly influenced by the N-terminal and collagen-domain backbone to which it is attached. The presence of the CRD of MBL in the chimera resulted in altered monosaccharide binding properties compared with SP-D. As a result, the chimera caused greater aggregation and neutralization of IAV than SP-D. Distinctive functional properties of collectin collagenous domains and CRDs can be exploited to generate novel human collectins with potential for therapy of influenza.

Association of familial deficiency of mannose-binding lectin and meningococcal disease.

We report the case of an 18-year-old man with meningococcal meningitis and low serum concentrations of mannose-binding lectin (MBL). His mother and grandfather, who had also had meningitis in early adulthood, also had low concentrations of MBL in their serum.

Antiangiogenic therapy of a recurrent giant cell tumor of the mandible with interferon alfa-2a.

We report a 5-year-old girl with a large rapidly growing giant cell tumor of the mandible that recurred 2 months after the first surgical excision and 3 months after a second resection. An angiogenic protein, (bFGF), was abnormally elevated in her urine. The patient was treated with interferon alfa-2a for 1 year because this agent inhibits angiogenesis by suppressing bFGF overexpression in infantile hemangiomas and in other human tumors. During this time the bone tumor regressed and disappeared, the urinary bFGF fell to normal levels, and the mandible regenerated. She has remained tumor-free and has been off therapy for 3 years at this writing. This first successful use of interferon alfa-2a to treat a mandibular tumor in a child demonstrates: 1) low grade tumors that overexpress bFGF may respond to interferon alfa-2a, in a manner similar to life-threatening infantile hemangiomas; 2) antiangiogenic therapy, given without interruption for 1 year, was safe and effective in this patient; and 3) treatment may be continued for 1 year without the development of drug resistance.

Requirement for croquemort in phagocytosis of apoptotic cells in Drosophila.

Macrophages in the Drosophila embryo are responsible for the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells and are competent to engulf bacteria. Croquemort (CRQ) is a CD36-related receptor expressed exclusively on these macrophages. Genetic evidence showed that crq was essential for efficient phagocytosis of apoptotic corpses but was not required for the engulfment of bacteria. The expression of CRQ was regulated by the amount of apoptosis. These data define distinct pathways for the phagocytosis of corpses and bacteria in Drosophila.

Phylogenetic perspectives in innate immunity.

The concept of innate immunity refers to the first-line host defense that serves to limit infection in the early hours after exposure to microorganisms. Recent data have highlighted similarities between pathogen recognition, signaling pathways, and effector mechanisms of innate immunity in Drosophila and mammals, pointing to a common ancestry of these defenses. In addition to its role in the early phase of defense, innate immunity in mammals appears to play a key role in stimulating the subsequent, clonal response of adaptive immunity.

Phagocytosis and development: back to the future.

Removal of apoptotic cells and micro-organisms is mediated via phagocytosis. Phagocytes express pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) that recognize apoptotic-cell-associated membrane patterns (ACAMPs). Similar ACAMPs and PRRs are used by mammals, Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster. Some PRRs recognize apoptotic cells and micro-organisms, suggesting overlap between these functions.

The serum mannose-binding protein and the macrophage mannose receptor are pattern recognition molecules that link innate and adaptive immunity.

The innate immune system evolved to protect the host in the early phases of an infectious challenge. The soluble mannose binding protein, and the cell surface mannose receptor are two key pattern recognition molecules of innate immunity. The ligand binding specificity of these molecules enables them to differentiate 'self' from 'non-self'. These pattern recognition capabilities are coupled to effector functions, which enable them to interact with other molecules of the immune system. In this way, these pattern recognition molecules are able to serve as a link between the innate and adaptive immune systems.

Reduced binding and phagocytosis of Pneumocystis carinii by alveolar macrophages from persons infected with HIV-1 correlates with mannose receptor downregulation.

The macrophage mannose receptor, a pattern recognition molecule and component of innate immunity, mediates binding and phagocytosis of Pneumocystis carinii and likely represents an important clearance mechanism in the lungs of immunocompetent hosts. The purpose of this study was to examine the ability of alveolar macrophages from HIV-infected individuals to bind and phagocytose P. carinii, and to investigate the role of the macrophage mannose receptor in mediating this interaction. Compared with healthy individuals, alveolar macrophage phagocytosis of P. carinii from HIV+ persons was reduced up to 74% (P = 0.02), primarily reflecting a reduction in the number of organisms associated with each macrophage (P = 0.019). Furthermore, macrophages from HIV+ individuals demonstrated up to an 80% (P < 0.05) reduction in mannose receptor surface expression and endocytosis. Mannose receptor affinity was unaltered, and mRNA levels were modestly reduced (P < 0.05). Cells from HIV+ individuals with CD4(+) counts < 200 cells/mm3 (representing individuals at high clinical risk for P. carinii pneumonia) demonstrated the lowest levels of P. carinii phagocytosis and mannose receptor endocytosis. In vitro HIV infection of alveolar macrophages from healthy individuals reduced mannose receptor endocytosis to 53.2% (P < 0.05) and P. carinii binding and phagocytosis to 67.4% (P < 0.05) of control. Our studies suggest that HIV infection may alter innate immunity in the lungs, and that impaired alveolar macrophage mannose receptor-mediated binding and phagocytosis of P. carinii may contribute to the susceptibility of HIV-infected individuals to this opportunistic pulmonary pathogen.

Th1 and Th2 cytokines cooperate to stimulate mannose-receptor-mediated phagocytosis.

The mannose receptor is a macrophage surface receptor that mediates both endocytosis and phagocytosis. Previous work has demonstrated that the prototypical Th2 cytokine, interleukin-4 (IL-4), increases both cell-surface receptor expression and mannose receptor-mediated endocytosis, whereas the prototypical Th1 cytokine, interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), decreases both surface expression and endocytosis. In many aspects of the immune response, Th1 and Th2 cytokines oppose each others' actions. We demonstrate that IL-4 and IFN-gamma alone and together enhance mannose receptor-mediated phagocytosis, despite opposing effects on cell-surface mannose receptor expression and endocytosis. Thus these usually antagonistic cytokines cooperate in increasing mannose receptor phagocytic function. The cooperative effect of these cytokines is not observed for Fc receptor-mediated phagocytosis. The Th2 cytokine IL-13 exerts similar effects to IL-4. Our results suggest that Th1 and Th2 cytokines may act in concert at sites of inflammation to enhance mannose receptor-mediated phagocytosis of microorganisms.

Cerebral vasculopathy and neurologic sequelae in infants with cervicofacial hemangioma: report of eight patients.

PURPOSE: To determine the association of cerebral arterial anomalies and progressive cerebral arterial occlusive disease in infants with facial hemangiomas. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The cases of eight infants (seven girls and one boy) with the diagnosis of cervicofacial hemangioma and intracranial arterial anomalies were reviewed retrospectively. Findings from clinical and imaging examinations--including cranial computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and angiography, and catheter angiography--were evaluated. Serial imaging findings were studied to document progressive intracranial vascular changes. RESULTS: Five patients had additional associated congenital anomalies. Seven were treated with corticosteroids, interferon alfa-2a, or both. Progressive cerebrovascular occlusive changes were documented in four of the seven patients with serial imaging findings. Four other patients (all treated pharmacologically) had MR imaging documentation of cerebral infarction, and all had consistent, acquired neurologic symptoms. CONCLUSION: Intracranial arterial anomalies can coexist with cervicofacial hemangioma. Aneurysmal and occlusive changes are potentially progressive and can result in cerebral infarction. A causative association between occlusive cerebrovascular disease and pharmacologic treatment has not been excluded.