Synergistic effects of diet and exercise on hippocampal function in chronically stressed mice.

Severe chronic stress can have a profoundly negative impact on the brain, affecting plasticity, neurogenesis, memory and mood. On the other hand, there are factors that upregulate neurogenesis, which include dietary antioxidants and physical activity. These factors are associated with biochemical processes that are also altered in age-related cognitive decline and dementia, such as neurotrophin expression, oxidative stress and inflammation. We exposed mice to an unpredictable series of stressors or left them undisturbed (controls). Subsets of stressed and control mice were concurrently given (1) no additional treatment, (2) a complex dietary supplement (CDS) designed to ameliorate inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, insulin resistance and membrane integrity, (3) a running wheel in each of their home cages that permitted them to exercise, or (4) both the CDS and the running wheel for exercise. Four weeks of unpredictable stress reduced the animals' preference for saccharin, increased their adrenal weights and abolished the exercise-induced upregulation of neurogenesis that was observed in non-stressed animals. Unexpectedly, stress did not reduce hippocampal size, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), or neurogenesis. The combination of dietary supplementation and exercise had multiple beneficial effects, as reflected in the number of doublecortin (DCX)-positive immature neurons in the dentate gyrus (DG), the sectional area of the DG and hippocampal CA1, as well as increased hippocampal BDNF messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) and serum vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels. In contrast, these benefits were not observed in chronically stressed animals exposed to either dietary supplementation or exercise alone. These findings could have important clinical implications for those suffering from chronic stress-related disorders such as major depression.

Attenuation of mania-like behavior in Na(+),K(+)-ATPase α3 mutant mice by prospective therapies for bipolar disorder: melatonin and exercise.

Bipolar disorder is a neuropsychiatric disease characterized by states of mania with or without depression. Pharmacological treatments can be inadequate at regulating mood for many individuals. Melatonin therapy and aerobic exercise are independent prospective therapies for bipolar disorder that have shown potential as mood stabilizers in humans. Myshkin mice (Myk/+) carry a heterozygous missense mutation in the neuronal Na(+),K(+)-ATPase α3 and model mania-related symptoms of bipolar disorder including increased activity, risk-taking behavior and reductions in sleep. One cohort of Myk/+ and wild-type littermates (+/+) was treated with melatonin and a separate cohort was treated with voluntary exercise. Mania-related behavior was assessed in both cohorts. The effect of melatonin on sleep and the effect of exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in the hippocampus were assayed. Melatonin and voluntary wheel running were both effective at reducing mania-related behavior in Myk/+ but did not affect behavior in +/+. Melatonin increased sleep in Myk/+ and did not change sleep in +/+. Myk/+ showed higher baseline levels of BDNF protein in the hippocampus than +/+. Exercise increased BDNF protein in +/+ hippocampus, while it did not significantly affect BDNF levels in Myk/+ hippocampus. These findings support initial studies in humans indicating that melatonin and exercise are useful independent adjunct therapies for bipolar disorder. Their effects on mood regulation should be further examined in randomized clinical trials. Our results also suggest that hippocampal BDNF may not mediate the effects of exercise on mania-related behavior in the Myk/+ model of mania.

The anxiolytic effect of Bifidobacterium longum NCC3001 involves vagal pathways for gut-brain communication.

BACKGROUND: The probiotic Bifidobacterium longum NCC3001 normalizes anxiety-like behavior and hippocampal brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in mice with infectious colitis. Using a model of chemical colitis we test whether the anxiolytic effect of B. longum involves vagal integrity, and changes in neural cell function. Methods Mice received dextran sodium sulfate (DSS, 3%) in drinking water during three 1-week cycles. Bifidobacterium longum or placebo were gavaged daily during the last cycle. Some mice underwent subdiaphragmatic vagotomy. Behavior was assessed by step-down test, inflammation by myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity and histology. BDNF mRNA was measured in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells after incubation with sera from B. longum- or placebo-treated mice. The effect of B. longum on myenteric neuron excitability was measured using intracellular microelectrodes. KEY RESULTS: Chronic colitis was associated with anxiety-like behavior, which was absent in previously vagotomized mice. B. longum normalized behavior but had no effect on MPO activity or histological scores. Its anxiolytic effect was absent in mice with established anxiety that were vagotomized before the third DSS cycle. B. longum metabolites did not affect BDNF mRNA expression in SH-SY5Y cells but decreased excitability of enteric neurons. CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES: In this colitis model, anxiety-like behavior is vagally mediated. The anxiolytic effect of B. longum requires vagal integrity but does not involve gut immuno-modulation or production of BDNF by neuronal cells. As B. longum decreases excitability of enteric neurons, it may signal to the central nervous system by activating vagal pathways at the level of the enteric nervous system.

Long-term changes in neurotrophic factor expression in distal nerve stump following denervation and reinnervation with motor or sensory nerve.

Several factors have been proposed to account for poor motor recovery after prolonged denervation, including motor neuron cell death and incomplete or poor regeneration of motor fibers into the muscle. Both may result from failure of the muscle and the distal motor nerve stump to continue expression of neurotrophic factors following delayed muscle reinnervation. This study investigated whether regenerating motor or sensory axons modulate distal nerve neurotrophic factor expression. We found that transected distal tibial nerve up-regulated brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) mRNA, down-regulated neurotrophin-3 and ciliary neurotrophic factor mRNA, and that although these levels returned to normal with regeneration, the chronically denervated distal nerve stump continued to express these neurotrophic factors for at least 6 months following injury. A sensory nerve (the cutaneous saphenous nerve) sutured to distal tibial nerve lowered injury-induced BDNF and GDNF mRNA levels in distal stump, but repair with a mixed nerve (peroneal, containing muscle and cutaneous axons) was more effective. Repair with sensory or mixed nerves did not affect nerve growth factor or neurotrophin-3 expression. Thus, distal nerve contributed to a neurotrophic environment for nerve regeneration for at least 6 months, and sensory nerve repair helped normalize distal nerve neurotrophic factor mRNA expression following denervation. Furthermore, as BDNF and GDNF levels in distal stump increased following denervation and returned to control levels following reinnervation, their levels serve as markers for the status of regeneration by either motor or sensory nerve.

NT-3 modulates BDNF and proBDNF levels in naïve and kindled rat hippocampus.

Both mature and precursor forms of neurotrophins regulate nerve development, survival and plasticity. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) synthesis and secretion in turn are regulated by neuronal activity, such as epilepsy. Further, neurotrophins themselves are regulated by neurotrophin levels. Neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) and BDNF in particular can be co-expressed and each can regulate the levels of the other. This regulation is thought to be mediated through receptor tyrosine kinase (Trk) activity. It is not known whether this neurotrophin-neurotrophin interaction occurs in hippocampal tissue in vivo, or how it is influenced by neuronal activation. In this study, we explored the reciprocal influences of intraventricular infusions of NT-3 and BDNF in naïve and kindled hippocampi of rats using Western blotting. We confirm that hippocampal kindling resulted in a significant increase in levels of BDNF both in cytochrome C (control) infused and NT-3 infused kindled rats. However, NT-3 infusion significantly reduced BDNF levels in both kindled and non-kindled hippocampi compared to their cytochrome C infused counterparts. These results are consistent with our earlier studies demonstrating lowered levels of TrkA and TrkC (NGF modulates BDNF levels via TrkA) following chronic NT-3 infusion. Although kindling led to an increase in BDNF, this was not accompanied by any detectable change in the levels of proBDNF. However, there was a significant increase in proBDNF following NT-3 infusions, suggesting NT-3 may reduce proBDNF processing. In contrast, neither NT-3 nor proNT-3 levels were affected by kindling or chronic BDNF infusions, consistent with down-regulation of TrkB by chronic BDNF infusion. Thus, modulation of BDNF by NT-3, likely mediated by Trk receptors, occurs in naïve and kindled adult rat hippocampus.

Strain differences affect the induction of status epilepticus and seizure-induced morphological changes.

Genetic deficits have been discovered in human epilepsy, which lead to alteration of the balance between excitation and inhibition, and ultimately result in seizures. Rodents show similar genetic determinants of seizure induction. To test whether seizure-prone phenotypes exhibit increased seizure-related morphological changes, we compared two standard rat strains (Long-Evans hooded and Wistar) and two specially bred strains following status epilepticus. The special strains, namely the kindling-prone (FAST) and kindling-resistant (SLOW) strains, were selectively bred based on their amygdala kindling rate. Although the Wistar and Long-Evans hooded strains experienced similar amounts of seizure activity, Wistar rats showed greater mossy fiber sprouting and hilar neuronal loss than Long-Evans hooded rats. The mossy fiber system was affected differently in FAST and SLOW rats. FAST animals showed more mossy fiber granules in the naïve state, but were more resistant to seizure-induced mossy fiber sprouting than SLOW rats. These properties of the FAST strain are consistent with those observed in juvenile animals, further supporting the hypothesis that the FAST strain shares circuit properties similar to those seen in immature animals. Furthermore, the extent of mossy fiber sprouting was not well correlated with sensitivity to status epilepticus, but was positively correlated with the frequency of spontaneous recurrent seizures in the FAST rats only, suggesting a possible role for axonal sprouting in the development of spontaneous seizures in these animals. We conclude that genetic factors clearly affect seizure development and related morphological changes in both standard laboratory strains and the selectively bred seizure-prone and seizure-resistant strains.

The effects of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) administration on kindling induction, Trk expression and seizure-related morphological changes.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a member of the neurotrophin family that mediates synaptic plasticity and excitability in the CNS. Recent evidence has shown that increased BDNF levels can lead to hyperexcitability and epileptiform activities, while suppression of BDNF function in transgenic mice or by antagonist administration retards the development of seizures. However, several groups, including our own, have reported that increasing BDNF levels by continuous intrahippocampal infusion inhibits epileptogenesis. It is possible that the continuous administration of BDNF produces a down-regulation of its high-affinity TrkB receptor, leading to a decrease of neuronal responsiveness to BDNF. If so, then animals should respond differently to bolus injections of BDNF, which presumably do not alter Trk expression, compared with continuous infusion. To test this hypothesis, we compared the effects of intrahippocampal BDNF continuous infusion and bolus injections on kindling induction. We showed that continuous infusion of BDNF inhibited the development of behavioral seizures and decreased the level of phosphorylated Trks or TrkB receptors. In contrast, multiple bolus microinjections of BDNF accelerated kindling development and did not affect the level of phosphorylated Trks or TrkB receptors. Our results indicate that different administration protocols yield opposite effects of BDNF on neuronal excitability, epileptogenesis and Trk expression. Unlike nerve growth factor and neurotrophin-3, which affect mossy fiber sprouting, we found that BDNF administration had no effect on the mossy fiber system in naive or kindled rats. Such results suggest that the effects of BDNF on epileptogenesis are not modulated by its effect on sprouting, but rather by its effects on excitability.

EphA/ephrin-A interactions regulate epileptogenesis and activity-dependent axonal sprouting in adult rats.

The Eph family of tyrosine kinase receptors and their ligands, ephrins, are distributed in gradients and serve as molecular guidance cues for axonal patterning during neuronal development. Most of these molecules are also expressed in mature brain. Thus, we examine here the potential roles of such molecules in plasticity and activity-dependent mossy fiber sprouting of adult CNS. We show that the ligand ephrin-A3 and the receptor EphA5 are expressed in complementary gradients in the adult rat mossy fiber system. Using the kindling model, we demonstrate that exogenous immunoadhesins that affect the interaction of endogenous EphA receptors and ephrin-A ligands modulate the development of kindling, one type of long-term plasticity, in mature rat brain. These immunoadhesins, combined with epileptogenic stimulations, alter both the extent and the pattern of collateral axonal sprouting in the mossy fiber pathway. Our results suggest that EphA receptors and ephrin-A ligands modify neuronal plasticity and may serve as spatial cues that modulate the development and pattern of activation-dependent axonal growth in adult CNS.

A ligand of the p65/p95 receptor suppresses perforant path kindling, kindling-induced mossy fiber sprouting, and hilar area changes in adult rats.

Kindling, an animal model of epilepsy, results in an increased volume of the hilus of the dentate gyrus and sprouting of the mossy fiber pathway in the hippocampus. Our previous studies have revealed that chronic infusion of neurotrophins can regulate not only seizure development, but also these kindling-induced structural changes. Kindling, in turn, can alter the expression of neurotrophins and their receptors. We previously showed that intraventricular administration of a synthetic peptide that interferes with nerve growth factor stability and thus its binding to TrkA and p75(NTR) receptors suppressed kindling and sprouting. However, the precise involvement of TrkA, p75(NTR), and downstream signaling effectors of neurotrophins on kindling, sprouting and hilar changes are unknown. One of these downstream effectors is Ras. In the present study, we find that intraventricular infusion of the synthetic peptide Reo3Y, which binds to p65/p95 receptors and causes a rapid inactivation of Ras protein, impairs development of perforant path kindling, reduces the growth in afterdischarge duration, blocks kindling-induced mossy fiber sprouting in area CA3 of hippocampus and in inner molecular layer of the dentate gyrus, and prevents kindling-induced increases in hilar area. These results are consistent with a mediation of neurotrophin effects on kindling, hilar area, and axonal sprouting via Trk receptors, and suggest important roles for Ras in kindling and in kindling-induced structural changes.

Neurotrophic factors and Alzheimer's disease: are we focusing on the wrong molecule?

Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promotes cholinergic neuron function and survival. In Alzheimer's disease, BDNF mRNA and protein are decreased in basal forebrain cholinergic neuron target tissues such as cortex and hippocampus. Using RT-PCR, we demonstrate that BDNF is synthesized in basal forebrain, supplying cholinergic neurons with a local as well as a target-derived source of this factor. BDNF mRNA levels are decreased 50% in nucleus basalis of Alzheimer disease patients compared to controls. Thus, not only do the basal forebrain cholinergic neurons have a reduced supply of target-derived BDNF, but also of local BDNF. We also show by Western blotting that human CNS tissue contains both proBDNF and mature BDNF protein. Moreover, we demonstrate a significant (2.25-fold) deficit in proBDNF protein in Alzheimer's disease parietal cortex compared to controls. Thus, reduced BDNF mRNA and protein levels in Alzheimer's disease suggests that BDNF administration may be an effective therapeutic strategy for this disorder.

Activity-dependent changes in synaptophysin immunoreactivity in hippocampus, piriform cortex, and entorhinal cortex of the rat.

Synaptophysin, an integral membrane glycoprotein of synaptic vesicles, has been widely used to investigate synaptogenesis in both animal models and human patients. Kindling is an experimental model of complex partial seizures with secondary generalization, and a useful model for studying activation-induced neural growth in adult systems. Many studies using Timm staining have shown that kindling promotes sprouting in the mossy fiber pathway of the dentate gyrus. In the present study, we used synaptophysin immunohistochemistry to demonstrate activation-induced neural sprouting in non-mossy fiber cortical pathways in the adult rat. We found a significant kindling-induced increase in synaptophysin immunoreactivity in the stratum radiatum of CA1 and stratum lucidum/radiatum of CA3, the hilus, the inner molecular layer of the dentate gyrus, and layer II/III of the piriform cortex, but no significant change in layer II/III of the entorhinal cortex, 4 weeks after the last kindling stimulation. We also found that synaptophysin immunoreactivity was lowest in CA3 near the hilus and increased with increasing distance from the hilus, a reverse pattern to that seen with Timm stains in stratum oriens following kindling. Furthermore, synaptophysin immunoreactivity was lowest in dorsal and greatest in ventral sections of both CA3 and dentate gyrus in both kindled and non-kindled animals. This demonstrates that different populations of sprouting axons are labeled by these two techniques, and suggests that activation-induced sprouting extends well beyond the hippocampal mossy fiber system.

Continuous infusion of neurotrophin-3 triggers sprouting, decreases the levels of TrkA and TrkC, and inhibits epileptogenesis and activity-dependent axonal growth in adult rats.

Neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), a member of the neurotrophin family of neurotrophic factors, is important for cell survival, axonal growth and neuronal plasticity. Epileptiform activation can regulate the expression of neurotrophins, and increases or decreases in neurotrophins can affect both epileptogenesis and seizure-related axonal growth. Interestingly, the expression of nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor is rapidly up-regulated following seizures, while NT-3 mRNA remains unchanged or undergoes a delayed down-regulation, suggesting that NT-3 might have a different function in epileptogenesis. In the present study, we demonstrate that continuous intraventricular infusion of NT-3 in the absence of kindling triggers mossy fiber sprouting in the inner molecular layer of the dentate gyrus and the stratum oriens of the CA3 region. Furthermore, despite this NT-3-related sprouting effect, continuous infusion of NT-3 retards the development of behavioral seizures and inhibits kindling-induced mossy fiber sprouting in the inner molecular layer of the dentate gyrus. We also show that prolonged infusion of NT-3 leads to a decrease in kindling-induced Trk phosphorylation and a down-regulation of the high-affinity Trk receptors, TrkA and TrkC, suggesting an involvement of both cholinergic nerve growth factor receptors and hippocampal NT-3 receptors in these effects. Our results demonstrate an important inhibitory role for NT-3 in seizure development and seizure-related synaptic reorganization.

High geothermal heat flow, Basal melt, and the origin of rapid ice flow in central Greenland.

Age-depth relations from internal layering reveal a large region of rapid basal melting in Greenland. Melt is localized at the onset of rapid ice flow in the large ice stream that drains north off the summit dome and other areas in the northeast quadrant of the ice sheet. Locally, high melt rates indicate geothermal fluxes 15 to 30 times continental background. The southern limit of melt coincides with magnetic anomalies and topography that suggest a volcanic origin.

Performance of heterozygous brain-derived neurotrophic factor knockout mice on behavioral analogues of anxiety, nociception, and depression.

Evidence suggests that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) may be important in the pathophysiology of depression, in addition to its role as a neurotrophic factor for sensory neurons. The authors conducted a series of experiments examining the behavioral profile of BDNF heterozygous knockout and wild-type mice. The heterozygous and wild-type mice did not differ on measures of activity, exploration, or hedonic sensitivity, or in the forced swim test. When assessed in the learned helplessness paradigm, heterozygous mice were slower to escape after training than were wild-type mice (p = .02). This effect may be accounted for by the fact that these mice demonstrate a reduced sensitivity to centrally mediated pain, apparent on the hot plate and Formalin injection tests of nociception. Overall, heterozygous mice were not more likely to display anxious or depressive-like behaviors and, consequently, may not constitute a murine model of genetic vulnerability to mood and anxiety disorders.

The precursor pro-nerve growth factor is the predominant form of nerve growth factor in brain and is increased in Alzheimer's disease.

Nerve growth factor (NGF) is important for regulation, differentiation, and survival of peripheral and central nervous system neurons, including basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCN) which degenerate in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Mature NGF protein is processed from a larger precursor, proNGF. We demonstrate that proNGF is the predominant form of NGF in mouse, rat, and human brain tissue, whereas little or no mature NGF is detected. Previous reports showed NGF protein, measured by ELISA, is increased in AD BFCN target regions such as hippocampus and cortex. Using Western blotting, we demonstrate a twofold increase in proNGF in AD parietal cortex compared to controls, indicating that it is this precursor form, proNGF, that accumulates in AD. This increase may reflect either a role for biologically active proNGF or posttranslational disturbances in NGF biosynthesis that decrease the processing of proNGF to mature NGF in AD.

Expression of the kallikrein gene family in normal and Alzheimer's disease brain.

The human kallikrein gene family consists of 15 serine proteases. We examined the expression of the kallikrein genes in human cerebral cortex and hippocampus by RT-PCR and compared their expression between Alzheimer's disease (AD) and control tissue. KLK1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14 are expressed in both cerebral cortex and hippocampus. KLK9 is expressed in cortex but not hippocampus, whereas KLK2, 3, 12 and 15 are not expressed in either tissue. We demonstrate an 11.5-fold increase in KLK8 mRNA levels in AD hippocampus compared to controls. The KLK8 gene product, neuropsin, processes extracellular matrix and is important for neuronal plasticity. Therefore, the increase in KLK8 could have detrimental effects on hippocampal function in AD.

Improved functional recovery of denervated skeletal muscle after temporary sensory nerve innervation.

Prolonged muscle denervation results in poor functional recovery after nerve repair. The possible protective effect of temporary sensory innervation of denervated muscle, prior to motor nerve repair, has been examined in the rat. Soleus and gastrocnemius muscles were denervated by cutting the tibial nerve, and the peroneal nerve was then sutured to the transected distal tibial nerve stump either immediately or after two, four or six months. In half of the animals with delayed repair, the saphenous (sensory) nerve was temporarily attached to the distal nerve stump. Muscles were evaluated three months after the peroneal-to-tibial union, and were compared with each other, with unoperated control muscles and with untreated denervated muscles. After four to six months of sensory "protection", gastrocnemius muscles weighed significantly more than unprotected muscles, and both gastrocnemius and soleus muscles exhibited better preservation of their structure, with less fiber atrophy and connective tissue hyperplasia. The maximum compound action potentials were significantly larger in gastrocnemius and soleus muscles following sensory protection, irrespective of the delay in motor nerve union. Isometric force, although less than in control animals and in those with immediate nerve repair, remained reasonably constant after sensory protection, while in unprotected muscles there was a progressive and significant decline as the period of denervation lengthened. We interpret these results as showing that, although incapable of forming excitable neuromuscular junctions, sensory nerves can nevertheless exert powerful trophic effects on denervated muscle fibers. We propose that these findings indicate a useful strategy for improving the outcome of peripheral nerve surgery.

Mass Balance of the Greenland Ice Sheet at High Elevations.

Comparison of ice discharge from higher elevation areas of the entire Greenland Ice Sheet with total snow accumulation gives estimates of ice thickening rates over the past few decades. On average, the region has been in balance, but with thickening of 21 centimeters per year in the southwest and thinning of 30 centimeters per year in the southeast. The north of the ice sheet shows less variability, with average thickening of 2 centimeters per year in the northeast and thinning of about 5 centimeters per year in the northwest. These results agree well with those from repeated altimeter surveys, except in the extreme south, where we find substantially higher rates of both thickening and thinning.

Quantitation of BDNF mRNA in human parietal cortex by competitive reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction: decreased levels in Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder of the central nervous system. One pathological characteristic is excessive neuronal loss in specific regions of the brain. Among the areas most severely affected are the basal forebrain cholinergic neurons and their projection regions, the hippocampus and cortex. Neurotrophic factors, particularly the neurotrophins nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor, play an important role in the development, regulation and survival of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons. Furthermore, brain-derived neurotrophic factor regulates the function of hippocampal and cortical neurons. Neurotrophins are synthesized in hippocampus and cortex and retrogradely transported to the basal forebrain. Decreased levels of neurotrophic factors are suspected to be involved in the neurodegenerative changes observed in Alzheimer's disease. We examined autopsied parietal cortex samples from age- and gender-matched Alzheimer's diseased and neurologically non-impaired individuals using the quantitative technique of competitive RT-PCR. We demonstrate a 3.4-fold decrease in brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA levels in the parietal cortex of patients with Alzheimer's disease compared to controls (p<0.004). A decrease in brain-derived neurotrophic factor synthesis could have detrimental effects on hippocampal, cortical and basal forebrain cholinergic neurons and may account for their selective vulnerability in Alzheimer's disease.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor infusion delays amygdala and perforant path kindling without affecting paired-pulse measures of neuronal inhibition in adult rats.

Kindling is an animal model of human temporal lobe epilepsy in which excitability in limbic structures is permanently enhanced by repeated stimulations. Kindling also increases the expression of nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor receptor messenger RNAs in both the hippocampus and cerebral cortex and causes structural changes in the hippocampus including hilar hypertrophy. We have recently shown that intraventricular nerve growth factor infusion enhances the development of kindling, whereas blocking nerve growth factor activity retards amygdaloid kindling. Furthermore, we have shown that nerve growth factor protects against kindling-induced hilar hypertrophy. The physiological role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in kindling is not as clear. Acute injection of brain-derived neurotrophic factor increases neuronal excitability and causes seizures, whereas chronic brain-derived neurotrophic factor infusion in rats slows hippocampal kindling. In agreement with the latter, we show here that intrahilar brain-derived neurotrophic factor infusion delays amygdala and perforant path kindling. In addition, we show that brain-derived neurotrophic factor, unlike nerve growth factor, does not protect against kindling-induced increases in hilar area. To test the hypothesis that brain-derived neurotrophic factor suppresses kindling by increasing inhibition above normal levels, we performed paired-pulse measures in the perforant path-dentate gyrus pathway. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor infused into the hippocampus had no effect on the stimulus intensity function (input/output curves); there was also no significant effect on paired-pulse inhibition. We then kindled the perforant path 10 days after the end of brain-derived neurotrophic factor treatment. Once again, kindling was retarded, showing that the brain-derived neurotrophic factor effect is long-lasting. These results indicate that prolonged in vivo infusion of brain-derived neurotrophic factor reduces, rather than increases, excitability without increasing inhibitory neuron function, at least as assessed by paired-pulse protocols. This effect may be mediated by long-lasting effects on brain-derived neurotrophic factor receptor regulation.