Fatty Acid Signaling Mechanisms in Neural Cells: Fatty Acid Receptors.

Fatty acids (FAs) are typically associated with structural and metabolic roles, as they can be stored as triglycerides, degraded by ß-oxidation or used in phospholipids' synthesis, the main components of biological membranes. It has been shown that these lipids exhibit also regulatory functions in different cell types. FAs can serve as secondary messengers, as well as modulators of enzymatic activities and substrates for cytokines synthesis. More recently, it has been documented a direct activity of free FAs as ligands of membrane, cytosolic, and nuclear receptors, and cumulative evidence has emerged, demonstrating its participation in a wide range of physiological and pathological conditions. It has been long known that the central nervous system is enriched with poly-unsaturated FAs, such as arachidonic (C20:4ω-6) or docosohexaenoic (C22:6ω-3) acids. These lipids participate in the regulation of membrane fluidity, axonal growth, development, memory, and inflammatory response. Furthermore, a whole family of low molecular weight compounds derived from FAs has also gained special attention as the natural ligands for cannabinoid receptors or key cytokines involved in inflammation, largely expanding the role of FAs as precursors of signaling molecules. Nutritional deficiencies, and alterations in lipid metabolism and lipid signaling have been associated with developmental and cognitive problems, as well as with neurodegenerative diseases. The molecular mechanism behind these effects still remains elusive. But in the last two decades, different families of proteins have been characterized as receptors mediating FAs signaling. This review focuses on different receptors sensing and transducing free FAs signals in neural cells: (1) membrane receptors of the family of G Protein Coupled Receptors known as Free Fatty Acid Receptors (FFARs); (2) cytosolic transport Fatty Acid-Binding Proteins (FABPs); and (3) transcription factors Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors (PPARs). We discuss how these proteins modulate and mediate direct regulatory functions of free FAs in neural cells. Finally, we briefly discuss the advantages of evaluating them as potential targets for drug design in order to manipulate lipid signaling. A thorough characterization of lipid receptors of the nervous system could provide a framework for a better understanding of their roles in neurophysiology and, potentially, help for the development of novel drugs against aging and neurodegenerative processes.

FABP1 knockdown in human enterocytes impairs proliferation and alters lipid metabolism.

Fatty Acid-Binding Proteins (FABPs) are abundant intracellular proteins that bind long chain fatty acids (FA) and have been related with inmunometabolic diseases. Intestinal epithelial cells express two isoforms of FABPs: liver FABP (LFABP or FABP1) and intestinal FABP (IFABP or FABP2). They are thought to be associated with intracellular dietary lipid transport and trafficking towards diverse cell fates. But still their specific functions are not well understood. To study FABP1's functions, we generated an FABP1 knockdown model in Caco-2 cell line by stable antisense cDNA transfection (FABP1as). In these cells FABP1 expression was reduced up to 87%. No compensatory increase in FABP2 was observed, strengthening the idea of differential functions of both isoforms. In differentiated FABP1as cells, apical administration of oleate showed a decrease in its initial uptake rate and in long term incorporation compared with control cells. FABP1 depletion also reduced basolateral oleate secretion. The secreted oleate distribution showed an increase in FA/triacylglyceride ratio compared to control cells, probably due to FABP1's role in chylomicron assembly. Interestingly, FABP1as cells exhibited a dramatic decrease in proliferation rate. A reduction in oleate uptake as well as a decrease in its incorporation into the phospholipid fraction was observed in proliferating cells. Overall, our studies indicate that FABP1 is essential for proper lipid metabolism in differentiated enterocytes, particularly concerning fatty acids uptake and its basolateral secretion. Moreover, we show that FABP1 is required for enterocyte proliferation, suggesting that it may contribute to intestinal homeostasis.

Characterization of fatty acid binding and transfer from Δ98Δ, a functional all-ß abridged form of IFABP.

Intestinal fatty acid binding protein (IFABP) is an intracellular lipid binding protein whose specific functions within the cell are still uncertain. An abbreviated version of IFABP encompassing residues 29-126, dubbed Δ98Δ is a stable product of limited proteolysis with clostripain of holo-IFABP. Cumulative evidence shows that Δ98Δ adopts a stable, monomeric and functional fold, with compact core and loose periphery. In agreement with previous results, this abridged variant indicates that the helical domain is-not necessary to preserve the general topology of IFABP's ß-barrel and that the helix-turn-helix motif is a fundamental element of the portal region involved in ligand binding and protein-membrane interactions. Results presented here suggest that Δ98Δ binds fatty acids with affinities lower than IFABP but higher than those shown by previous helix-less variants, shows a 'diffusional' fatty acid transfer mechanism and it interacts with artificial membranes. This work highlights the importance of the ß-barrel of IFABP for its specific functions.

IFABP portal region insertion during membrane interaction depends on phospholipid composition.

Intestinal fatty acid-binding protein (IFABP) is highly expressed in the intestinal epithelium and it belongs to the family of soluble lipid binding proteins. These proteins are thought to participate in most aspects of the biology of lipids, regulating its availability for specific metabolic pathways, targeting and vectorial trafficking of lipids to specific subcellular compartments. The present study is based on the ability of IFABP to interact with phospholipid membranes, and we characterized its immersion into the bilayer's hydrophobic central region occupied by the acyl-chains. We constructed a series of Trp-mutants of IFABP to selectively probe the interaction of different regions of the protein, particularly the elements forming the portal domain that is proposed to regulate the exit and entry of ligands to/from the binding cavity. We employed several fluorescent techniques based on selective quenching induced by soluble or membrane confined agents. The results indicate that the portal region of IFABP penetrates deeply into the phospholipid bilayer, especially when CL-containing vesicles are employed. The orientation of the protein and the degree of penetration were highly dependent on the lipid composition, the superficial net charge and the ionic strength of the medium. These results may be relevant to understand the mechanism of ligand transfer and the specificity responsible for the unique functions of each member of the FABP family.

Análisis estructural y funcional de proteínas solubles que unen lípidos de intestino e hígado / Structure-function analysis of soluble lipid binding proteins from intestine and liver / Análise estrutural e funcional de proteínas solúveis que ligam lipídeos de intestino e fígado

Luego de la ingesta, el epitelio del intestino delgado está encargado de asimilar grandes cantidades de nutrientes, como aminoácidos, glúcidos y ácidos grasos. Las proteínas solubles que unen lípidos cumplirían un rol determinante en este proceso, sobre todo protegiendo la integridad del tejido contra el efecto simil-detergente de los ácidos grasos provenientes de la dieta. En enterocitos se expresan dos proteínas que unen ácidos grasos de cadena larga, IFABP y LFABP, para las cuales no se conocen bien aún sus funciones específicas, o el porqué de la necesidad de dos proteínas aparentemente equivalentes. Este laboratorio se ha enfocado en el estudio comparativo de estas dos proteínas empleando distintas variantes estructurales y métodos bioquímicos, biofísicos, y de biología molecular y celular. Así, se han podido definir los determinantes moleculares de cada proteína responsables de la interacción con membranas, los mecanismos de transferencia de ligandos y los factores que modulan estas propiedades. Más recientemente, se han extendido estos ensayos a cultivos celulares donde se ha correlacionado la expresión de estas proteínas con la secreción de citoquinas, la proliferación y la diferenciación celular. El estudio de estas proteínas es de gran importancia por su potencial como blancos terapéuticos y su utilidad en el diagnóstico de injurias tisulares.

After ingestion, the epithelium of the small intestine is responsible for assimilating large amounts of nutrients such as amino acids, sugars and fatty acids. Soluble lipid binding proteins fulfill a determining role in this process, especially protecting the tissue integrity against the detergent-like effect of fatty acids from the diet. Two proteins that bind long-chain fatty acids are expressed in enterocytes, IFABP and LFABP, whose specific functions are still poorly understood, or the reason for the need of two apparently equivalent proteins. Our laboratory has focused on the comparative study of these two proteins using structural variants and biochemical, biophysical, and molecular and cellular biology approaches. Thus, the molecular determinants responsible for the interaction with membranes were defined for each protein, their ligand transfer mechanism and the factors that modulate these properties. More recently, these assays have been extended to cell culture studies which correlate the expression of these proteins with cytokine secretion, cell proliferation and differentiation. The study of these proteins is of great importance due to their potential as therapeutic targets and their usefulness in the diagnosis of tissue injury.

Após a ingestão, o epitélio do intestino delgado é responsável pela assimilação de uma grande quantidade de nutrientes, tais como aminoácidos, glicídios e ácidos graxos. As proteínas solúveis que ligam lipídeos desempenhariam um papel determinante neste processo, principalmente protegendo a integridade do tecido contra o efeito detergente dos ácidos graxos da dieta. Nos enterócitos se expressam duas proteínas que ligam ácidos graxos de cadeia longa, IFABP e LFABP; cujas funções específicas ainda não são muito conhecidas, ou não se conhece o motivo pelo qual são necessárias duas proteínas aparentemente equivalentes. Nosso laboratório tem se focado no estudo comparativo destas duas proteínas utilizando variantes estruturais e métodos bioquímicos, biofísicos, e de biologia molecular e celular. Assim, foi possível definir os determinantes moleculares de cada proteína responsáveis pela interação com membranas, os mecanismos da transferência de ligantes e os fatores que modulam essas propriedades. Mais recentemente, estendemos estes ensaios para culturas celulares, correlacionando a expressão destas proteínas com a secreção de citocinas, a proliferação e a diferenciação celular. O estudo destas proteínas é de grande importância por seu potencial como alvos terapêuticos e sua utilidade no diagnóstico de lesões teciduais.

Análisis estructural y funcional de proteínas solubles que unen lípidos de intestino e hígado / Structure-function analysis of soluble lipid binding proteins from intestine and liver / Análise estrutural e funcional de proteínas solúveis que ligam lipídeos de intestino e fígado

Luego de la ingesta, el epitelio del intestino delgado está encargado de asimilar grandes cantidades de nutrientes, como aminoácidos, glúcidos y ácidos grasos. Las proteínas solubles que unen lípidos cumplirían un rol determinante en este proceso, sobre todo protegiendo la integridad del tejido contra el efecto simil-detergente de los ácidos grasos provenientes de la dieta. En enterocitos se expresan dos proteínas que unen ácidos grasos de cadena larga, IFABP y LFABP, para las cuales no se conocen bien aún sus funciones específicas, o el porqué de la necesidad de dos proteínas aparentemente equivalentes. Este laboratorio se ha enfocado en el estudio comparativo de estas dos proteínas empleando distintas variantes estructurales y métodos bioquímicos, biofísicos, y de biología molecular y celular. Así, se han podido definir los determinantes moleculares de cada proteína responsables de la interacción con membranas, los mecanismos de transferencia de ligandos y los factores que modulan estas propiedades. Más recientemente, se han extendido estos ensayos a cultivos celulares donde se ha correlacionado la expresión de estas proteínas con la secreción de citoquinas, la proliferación y la diferenciación celular. El estudio de estas proteínas es de gran importancia por su potencial como blancos terapéuticos y su utilidad en el diagnóstico de injurias tisulares.(AU)

After ingestion, the epithelium of the small intestine is responsible for assimilating large amounts of nutrients such as amino acids, sugars and fatty acids. Soluble lipid binding proteins fulfill a determining role in this process, especially protecting the tissue integrity against the detergent-like effect of fatty acids from the diet. Two proteins that bind long-chain fatty acids are expressed in enterocytes, IFABP and LFABP, whose specific functions are still poorly understood, or the reason for the need of two apparently equivalent proteins. Our laboratory has focused on the comparative study of these two proteins using structural variants and biochemical, biophysical, and molecular and cellular biology approaches. Thus, the molecular determinants responsible for the interaction with membranes were defined for each protein, their ligand transfer mechanism and the factors that modulate these properties. More recently, these assays have been extended to cell culture studies which correlate the expression of these proteins with cytokine secretion, cell proliferation and differentiation. The study of these proteins is of great importance due to their potential as therapeutic targets and their usefulness in the diagnosis of tissue injury.(AU)

Após a ingestÒo, o epitélio do intestino delgado é responsável pela assimilaþÒo de uma grande quantidade de nutrientes, tais como aminoácidos, glicídios e ácidos graxos. As proteínas solúveis que ligam lipídeos desempenhariam um papel determinante neste processo, principalmente protegendo a integridade do tecido contra o efeito detergente dos ácidos graxos da dieta. Nos enterócitos se expressam duas proteínas que ligam ácidos graxos de cadeia longa, IFABP e LFABP; cujas funþ§es específicas ainda nÒo sÒo muito conhecidas, ou nÒo se conhece o motivo pelo qual sÒo necessárias duas proteínas aparentemente equivalentes. Nosso laboratório tem se focado no estudo comparativo destas duas proteínas utilizando variantes estruturais e métodos bioquímicos, biofísicos, e de biologia molecular e celular. Assim, foi possível definir os determinantes moleculares de cada proteína responsáveis pela interaþÒo com membranas, os mecanismos da transferÛncia de ligantes e os fatores que modulam essas propriedades. Mais recentemente, estendemos estes ensaios para culturas celulares, correlacionando a expressÒo destas proteínas com a secreþÒo de citocinas, a proliferaþÒo e a diferenciaþÒo celular. O estudo destas proteínas é de grande importÔncia por seu potencial como alvos terapÛuticos e sua utilidade no diagnóstico de les§es teciduais.(AU)