Mothers' Use of Regulatory Talk with Toddlers in Chile and the US: How Do Cultural Values and Children's Gender Affect Mothers' Regulatory Talk at 12 and 30 Months?

Studies have shown that Chilean and US infants differ in their levels of self-regulation. One of the mechanisms of early socializing is the use of language, particularly mental state language. The current study seeks to deepen our knowledge of the ways in which mental state language is related to socialization processes in early childhood, including the ways both culture and children's gender influence a mothers' use of mental state talk. We used a quantitative and descriptive approach with 109 mothers and their children (64 Chilean and 45 US dyads), measured twice, at 12 and 30 months old. Mental state references related to regulation were coded during a story-sharing task, including positive (calm and patient) and negative (messy and impatient) references to regulating behavior. Chilean mothers generally showed more regulatory references than US mothers, especially if the children were at a younger age (12 month). Frequencies of regulatory references increased in US mothers at 30 months but were still less than in Chilean mothers. At the 12-month measuring point, Chilean mothers showed more negative regulatory attributes than positive regulatory attributes. Finally, US mothers mainly used references to secondary emotions (e.g., pride) and positive regulatory attributes (being obedient, mature and patient) at both ages.

The Impact of Contextual, Maternal and Prenatal Factors on Receptive Language in a Chilean Longitudinal Birth Cohort.

A secondary analysis was conducted on longitudinal data collected from ELPI, a representative Chilean survey to model Chilean infant's receptive language using contextual, maternal and prenatal factors. The sample for the current study comprised children aged between 36 and 48 months (n = 3921). The sample was re-assessed when children were aged 60-72 months (n = 3100). Linear regression analyses were conducted. At the first time point, all the predictors included were significant (living area, health system provision, maternal intelligence and education, adolescent pregnancy, maternal medical appointments during pregnancy, and presence of a significant other at childbirth), except for smoking during pregnancy. The model explained 13% of the variance. However, when timepoint one receptive language scores were included in the analyses for when children were aged 60-72 months, only two variables remained as significant predictors: previous receptive language scores and maternal education, explaining 21% of the variance. Findings and implications are discussed.

Mode of Delivery and Maternal Sensitivity: Effects on the Socioemotional Development of Children at One Year of Age / Tipo de parto y sensibilidad materna: Efectos en el desarrollo socioemocional de niños y niñas al año de edad

Abstract Early childhood is a period of high relevance in children's socioemotional development, establishing the basis for future development. Acquisitions during the first year of life are significant predictors of future social and emotional skills. During this period, maternal sensitivity is also essential, and there is evidence regarding its effects on the socioemotional development of the child. Considering the relevance of this competence, together with the global and national increase in cesarean rates and the possible risks associated with the type of delivery experienced, the influence of the type of delivery and the maternal sensitivity in child's socioemotional development at one year of age was analyzed. For this, an intentional non-probabilistic sample of 91 mothers with their respective children of different socioeconomic levels, who attended public or private nurseries in the city of Santiago, Chile, was studied. The instruments used were the Adult Sensitivity Scale (ESA) and the Functional Emotional Assessment Scale (FEAS). The results showed no differences in the children's socioemotional development according to the type of delivery. However, it was possible to observe an association between a higher maternal sensitivity and a more significant socioemotional development on children at one year of age. The implications of promoting maternal sensitivity are discussed to support optimal socioemotional development in infants.

Resumen La infancia temprana es un periodo de gran relevancia en el desarrollo socioemocional infantil; de hecho, es donde se sientan las bases del desarrollo futuro. En este sentido, las adquisiciones durante el primer año de vida son predictores importantes de las habilidades sociales y emocionales futuras, de modo que la sensibilidad materna, según evidencia respecto a sus efectos en el desarrollo socioemocional del niño, ha demostrado ser un aspecto fundamental durante este periodo. Teniendo esto en cuenta, y considerando la relevancia de dicha competencia, así como el alza mundial y nacional en las tasas de cesárea y los posibles riesgos asociados al tipo de parto vivenciado, el presente estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar la influencia de la sensibilidad materna y del tipo de parto en el desarrollo socioemocional infantil al año de edad. Para ello, se estudió una muestra no probabilística intencionada de 91 madres con sus respectivos hijos o hijas -de distinto nivel socioeconómico- que asistían a salas cuna públicas o privadas en la ciudad de Santiago, Chile, por medio de dos instrumentos: la escala de sensibilidad del adulto (ESA) y la functional emotional assessment scale (FEAS). En general, los resultados no mostraron diferencias en el desarrollo socioemocional de los niños según el tipo de parto, aunque sí se pudo apreciar una relación entre una mayor sensibilidad materna y un mayor desarrollo socioemocional de los niños al año de edad. Al final se discuten las implicaciones de promover la sensibilidad materna con el fin de apoyar un óptimo desarrollo socioemocional en los infantes.

Mothers' competence profiles and their relation to language and socioemotional development in Chilean children at 12 and 30 months.

The study of early parental competences is relevant because such competences are related to children's development; however, most studies have considered competences using a variable-centered approach in which each parental competence is examined in isolation. This paper approaches these competences using a person-centered approach, generating profiles that combine different competences in Chilean mothers assessed when their children were aged 12 months and again at 30 months. The aim of this study was to generate and compare these profiles and to analyze the associations of these profiles with children's language and socioemotional skills. Mother-child interactions in the contexts of storytelling and free play were videotaped at two different times. Ninety mother-child dyads were assessed using the Adult Sensitivity Scale (E.S.A.), the Evaluation of the Mentalization of Significant Caregivers, the Checklist of Observations Linked to Outcomes (PICCOLO), Bayley's language scale and the Functional Emotional Assessment Scale (FEAS). Profiles of mothers' behaviors were identified through person-centered within-group analyses of six aspects: sensitivity, mentalization, affection, responsiveness, encouragement, and teaching. Cluster analyses yielded three similar profiles for mothers at both ages: highly competent, average competent, and poorly competent. The mothers' profiles were related to maternal age, socioeconomic status (SES) and educational level, and the mothers improved their profiles at the 30-month assessment. The mothers' profiles were related to children's language and socioemotional outcomes at both ages. These results and their applicability to promotion and intervention programs are discussed.

Breastfeeding initiation and duration in Chile: understanding the social and health determinants.

BACKGROUND: Given the support for the numerous benefits of breastfeeding, a better understanding of social and health determinants is necessary, particularly in under-researched populations. We examined determinants of breastfeeding initiation and duration using a national cohort of Chilean mothers. METHODS: Participants included 13 738 families enrolled in the Encuesta Longitudinal de la Primera Infancia cohort. Data were collected in 2010 and 2012. Families from all regions of the country were considered. Breastfeeding information was collected via maternal report and standardised assessments were used to collect information on maternal IQ and personality. Logistic and linear regressions were used to identify predictors of breastfeeding initiation and duration. RESULTS: Breastfeeding was initiated by 95.2% of mothers. Variation in duration of breastfeeding was large, ranging from 1 to 48 months (M = 11.74; SD = 8.74). Maternal IQ, low-risk prenatal behaviours, conditions at birth and the presence of a partner were relevant predictors of both initiation and duration of breastfeeding, whereas personality and contextual/socioeconomic factors were relevant only for breastfeeding duration. Differences between regions were observed. Rates of caesarean deliveries are alarmingly high and triple that of the global WHO recommendations, at 45% of deliveries in Chile, which are implicated in both initiation and duration. CONCLUSIONS: Breastfeeding rates exceed Chilean target goals although vary by region. Global targets now need to be focused on. Social and health determinants are implicated in both initiation and duration of breastfeeding. These findings suggest important targets for policy development and breastfeeding initiatives in Chile, particularly concerning the reduction of surgical deliveries.

Breastfeeding and behavioural problems: Propensity score matching with a national cohort of infants in Chile.

IMPORTANCE: Potential effects of breast feeding on children's behaviour remains an elusive debate given inherent methodological challenges. Propensity score matching affords benefits by ensuring greater equivalence on observable social and health determinants, helping to reduce bias between groups. OBJECTIVES: We examined whether the duration of breast feeding had an impact on children's externalising and internalising behaviours. STUDY DESIGN: A cohort study (Encuesta Longitudinal de la Primera Infancia cohort) that included 3037 Chilean families who were enrolled in 2010. Follow-up data was collected in 2012. SETTING: General community. PARTICIPANTS: Population-based sample. Eligibility criteria: children born full-term with complete data on matching variables. Matching variables included: healthcare system as a proxy of income, presence of a partner/spouse in the household, maternal age, educational level, IQ, working status, type of work, diagnosis of prenatal depression by a healthcare professional, smoking during pregnancy, delivery type, child sex, weight at birth, incubation following delivery, and child age. EXPOSURE: Duration of breast feeding. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Externalising and internalising problems assessed using the Child Behaviour Checklist. RESULTS: Matched results revealed benefits of any breast feeding, up to 6 months, on emotional reactivity and somatic complaints (mean difference of -1.00, 95% CI, -1.84 to -0.16 and -1.02, 95% CI, -1.76 to -0.28, respectively). Children breast fed between 7 and 12 months also had reduced scores on emotional reactivity, in addition to attention problems (mean difference of -0.86, 95% CI, -1.66 to -0.06 and -0.50, 95% CI, -0.93 to -0.07, respectively). No benefits were observed for children breast fed 13 months or more. CONCLUSION: Reduced internalising difficulties and inattention were found in children breast fed up to a year, suggesting that breast feeding may have beneficial impacts on these areas of development. The magnitude of effect was modest. Extended durations of breast feeding did not appear to offer any benefits.

Relación entre atención compartida madre-hijo, sensibilidad materna y expresión emocional gestual infantil / Relação entre atenção compartilhada mãe-filho, sensibilidade materna e expressão emocional gestual infantil / Relationship between mother-child shared attention, maternal sensitivity and infant emotional gestural expression

Resumen La atención compartida se refiere a episodios en los que el niño y su cuidador están enfocados intencionalmente en algún objeto o actividad, presentando intercambios físicos y emocionales. En este estudio se describió la atención compartida considerando las dimensiones de nivel de compromiso y tono emocional, y se analizó su relación con la sensibilidad materna y la intensidad de la expresión emocional gestual de niños de un año de edad. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 12 díadas madre-hijo, donde se consideró como criterios de inclusión que los niños tuvieran entre 12 y 14 meses de edad, que fueran hijos únicos, que vivieran con ambos padres, y que asistieran a sala cuna. Los instrumentos utilizados fueron la Evaluación de Atención Compartida, la Evaluación de la Expresión Emocional Gestual del Niño y la Escala de Sensibilidad del Adulto. Los resultados evidencian episodios de atención compartida en díadas madre-hijo al año de edad, además de una relación significativa entre atención compartida con el nivel de compromiso y la sensibilidad materna.

Resumo A atenção compartilhada refere-se a episódios nos quais a criança e seu cuidador estão focados intencionalmente em algum objeto ou atividade, apresentando trocas físicas e emocionais. Neste estudo, a atenção compartilhada foi descrita considerando as dimensões de nível de compromisso e tom emocional, e foi analisada sua relação com a sensibilidade materna e com a intensidade da expressão emocional gestual de crianças de um ano de idade. A amostra estava composta por 12 duplas mãe-filho, cujos critérios de inclusão eram que as crianças tivessem entre 12 e 14 meses de idade, que fossem filhos únicos, que vivessem com ambos os pais e que frequentassem o berçário. Os instrumentos utilizados foram a Avaliação de Atenção Compartilhada, a Avaliação da Expressão Emocional Gestual da Criança e a Escala de Sensibilidade do Adulto. Os resultados evidenciam episódios de atenção compartilhada em duplas mãe-filho com um ano de idade, além de uma relação significativa entre atenção compartilhada com o nível de compromisso e a sensibilidade materna.

Abstract Shared attention refers to episodes through which a child and his or her caretaker are intentionally focused on some object or activity while engaging in physical and emotional exchange. This study describes shared attention bearing in mind levels of commitment and emotional tone, and it analyzes associated relationships with maternal sensitivity and the intensity of emotional expression in one-year-old children. The sample includes 12 mother-child dyads with the following inclusion criteria: only children, of ages between 12 and 14 months, living with both parents and attending a nursery. The instruments used were the Shared Attention Assessment, the Children's Emotional Expressions Assessment, and the Adult Sensitivity Scale (ASS). Results show episodes of shared attention between mother-child dyads at one year of age. A significant relationship between shared attention, levels of commitment, and maternal sensitivity was also found.

Depression, anxiety and PTSD in sexually abused adolescents: Association with self-efficacy, coping and family support.

Sexual abuse has the potential to generate serious emotional consequences for its victims, but there is high variability in the symptoms reported by different victims. Therefore, it is necessary to ascertain the factors associated with the symptoms presented by sexual abuse victims. The aim of the study was to use a single model to evaluate the relationship between sexual abuse characteristics (frequency, violence, relation with the aggressor and physical commitment), cognitive and behavioral factors (self-efficacy, active coping and perceived family support) and internalizing symptoms (anxiety, depression and posttraumatic stress) in a group of sexually abused adolescents. The participants included 106 female adolescent victims of sexual abuse (M=14.25years, SD=1.74). The results of a path analysis indicated that sexual abuse characteristics were unrelated to symptomatology. Only a negative relationship was observed between the victim's relationship with the aggressor and PTSD symptomatology. The violence of the sexual abuse was negatively related to self-efficacy, and self-efficacy was positively related to active coping and negatively related to symptomatology. Finally, the perception of family support was positively related to self-efficacy and negatively related to symptomatology. These results suggest the need to consider the studied factors in the process of psychotherapy with victims of sexual abuse.

Diferencias en temperamento según nivel socioeconómico en niños chilenos de 12 y 30 meses / Differences in temperament according to socioeconomic status in 12 to 30 months Chilean children

Resumen Se entiende el temperamento como el conjunto de diferencias individuales en reactividad y autorregulación, manteniéndose relativamente estable a través del tiempo, y siendo influenciado por la herencia, la maduración biológica y el contacto con el ambiente. En el presente estudio se buscó establecer si se dan diferencias en las dimensiones de temperamento de extraversión, afecto negativo y autorregulación según nivel socioeconómico, en niños chilenos asistentes a sala cuna. Se evaluaron 103 niños de ambos sexos, a los 12 y a los 30 meses de edad, con los cuestionarios IBQ-R-VSF y ECBQ-VSF, los cuales respondieron los padres. Los resultados mostraron que entre los 12 y 30 meses la extraversión se mantuvo constante, mientras que las dimensiones de afecto negativo y autorregulación disminuyeron de manera significativa. A los 12 meses los niños de NSE alto mostraron una mayor autorregulación, mientras que a los 30 meses los niños de NSE bajo evidenciaron un mayor afecto negativo. Se discuten los resultados en base a la evidencia encontrada sobre las diferentes realidades en los distintos niveles socioeconómicos.

Abstract Temperament is understood as the set of individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation, considered as stable through time, and influenced by the heritability, the biological maturation, and the interaction with the environment. The aim of this study was to determine if the dimensions of temperament (extraversion, negative affect, and self-regulation) show differences according to socioeconomic status in Chilean children attending to nurseries. For this study, 103 children from both genders were evaluated at 12 and 30 months old, using the IBQ-R-VSF and ECBQ-VSF questionnaires, which were answered by their parent. Results showed that between 12 and 30 months, extraversion remained constant, while the dimensions of negative affect and self-regulation decreased significantly. Children from high socioeconomic status showed higher self-regulation at age of 12 months, while the ones from low socioeconomic status decreased their negative affect at 30 months old. Results are discussed based on evidence about realities from different socioeconomic statuses.

Relación de la autorregulación infantil con sensibilidad materna y contexto familiar a los 12 y 30 meses de edad / Relationship between children self-regulation, maternal sensitivity and family context at 12 and 30 months of age

La autorregulación se refiere a la capacidad del niño/a para modificar su conducta según las demandas del entorno. Esta presenta una gran influencia en el desarrollo infantil, especialmente en el ámbito social. Desde una mirada evolutiva, la autorregulación, como característica temperamental, depende de factores tanto biológicos como contextuales, donde las figuras parentales juegan un rol determinante. En el siguiente estudio se analizó la relación entre la sensibilidad de la madre cuando el niño/a tenía 12 meses y la autorregulación de este tanto a los 12 como a los 30 meses de edad, para examinar si la sensibilidad materna predice la autorregulación infantil a los 30 meses. Además se incluyeron variables del contexto familiar, como tipo de familia, tipo de hijo/a y NSE. La muestra incluyó 72 diadas madre-hijo/a, con un diseño descriptivo, longitudinal, comparativo y correlacional. Se aplicó la Escala de Sensibilidad del Adulto (E.S.A.), un cuestionario sociodemográfico y los cuestionarios de temperamento IBQ-R-VSF y ECBQ-VSF. Los resultados muestran una relación significativa entre la autorregulación de los infantes a los 12 meses, con el tipo de hijo/a que son, y la interacción entre NSE y sensibilidad de las madres. A los 30 meses, en cambio, además de la autorregulación a los 12 meses, solo resulta ser un predictor significativo el tipo de hijo/a. Se discuten las implicancias de los resultados.

Self-regulation refers to the capacity of a child to modify his or her behavior according to environmental demands. It strongly influences child's development, especially in the social sphere. From an evolutionary point of view, self-regulation, viewed as a temperamental characteristic, depends on biological and environmental factors, where the parental figures of the child play a crucial role. In the following study, an analysis of the relationship between mother's sensitivity when her child was 12 months old and the child's self-regulation at 12 months and 30 months of age was made. This was done to analyze if mother's sensitivity predicts child's self-regulation at 30 months of age. Also variables related to the family context were included, considering type of family, type of child and SES. The sample included 72 mother-child dyads, with a descriptive, longitudinal, comparative and correlational design. The Adult Sensitivity Scale, a socio-demographic questionnaire and the temperament questionnaires IBQ-R-VSF and ECBQ-VSF were used to obtain the data. The results show that there is a significant relationship between infants' self-regulation at 12 months, the type of child, and the interaction between SES and maternal sensitivity. At 30 months of age instead, additionally to the self-regulation at 12 months, only the type of child is a significant predictor. Further implications of these results are discussed

Socioemotional skills between 12 and 30 months of age on Chilean children: When do the competences of adults matter?

Due to the rapid growth in early socioemotional skills during the first three years of life, significant variations in socioemotional development begin early and increase with time. Family competences as sensitivity and mentalization, contribute to differences among children of the same age. This study examines whether the level of socioemotional skills is stable or changes between 12 and 30 months of age, and whether primary caregiver sensitivity and mentalization, as well as educational level, are associated with changes in the level of socioemotional skills. One hundred and three Chilean children were evaluated. The results showed a significant change in socioemotional level between 12 and 30 months. Primary caregivers' sensitivity was associated with socioemotional skills at 12 months of age, and caregivers' educational levels was the strongest predictor. At 30 months, caregivers' sensitivity and educational level did not contribute additional influence, and only child socioemotional skills reported at 12 months acted as a predictor. Results indicate that family competences contribute to infants' socioemotional development in the first year of life, which subsequently influences their later skills.

Percepción materna del desarrollo socioemocional infantil: relación con temperamento infantil y sensibilidad materna / Maternal perception of infant socio-emotional development: Relationship with infant temperament and maternal sensitivity

Resumen Debido al rápido crecimiento en las habilidades sociales y emocionales tempranas, variaciones significativas en el desarrollo socioemocional comienzan tempranamente y pueden hacerse más fuertes a través del tiempo. Además, variables individuales y familiares pueden contribuir a incrementar estas diferencias entre niños de una misma edad. Este estudio examina la relación entre la percepción materna del desarrollo socioemocional infantil a los 12 meses de edad con la sensibilidad materna, el sexo y temperamento infantil, y el nivel socioeconómico familiar, y analiza cuál de estas variables predice dicha percepción. Un total de 90 niños y niñas fueron evaluados con sus madres al año de edad, con la Escala Social Emocional (Bayley), el Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ-R-VSF), la Evaluación de Sensibilidad del Adulto (ESA) y un cuestionario sociodemográfico. Los resultados mostraron que el mejor predictor de la percepción materna del desarrollo socioemocional infantil a esta edad era el temperamento del niño, específicamente la dimensión de extraversión.

Abstract Because of the rapid growth in early social and emotional skills, significant variations in socioemotional development begin early and may become stronger over time. In adittion, individual and family variables may contribute to increase these differences among children of the same age. This study examined the relationship between maternal perception of infants' social-emotional development at 12 months of age, maternal sensitivity, child's gender and temperament, and family's socioeconomic status, and analyzes which of these variables predict such perception. 90 boys and girls were assessed with their mothers at 1 year old with Bayley Social Emotional Scale, Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ-R-VSF), Adult's Sensitivity Assessment (ESA), and a socio-demographic questionnaire. Results showed that the best predictor of maternal perception of infant socio-emotional develop-ment at this age was the child's temperament, specifically the dimension of extraversion.

Differences in infant temperament between Chile and the US.

Temperament refers to individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation and is influenced by genetic and experiential variation and maturation. Temperament reflects biologically based individual differences that emerge in early life and remain relatively stable thereafter. Given the growing interest in cultural variation in infant temperament, this study examined the temperament of 12-month-old children in Chile and the US. The aims were to validate a version of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire - Revised - Very Short Form in Spanish for Chile and to compare Chilean and US infants' temperament. For the first aim, 150 Chilean infants aged 10-15 months were assessed, and 73 US infants aged 10-15 months were examined for the second aim. The children's parents completed a demographic questionnaire and the IBQ-R-VSF, which measures three dimensions of temperament: Surgency, Negative Affectivity, and Effortful Control. The reliability of each dimension for the Chilean sample was between 0.70 and 0.75, and significant differences between Chilean and US infants emerged. Parents of Chilean infants reported higher levels of Effortful Control, whereas US parents reported that their infants exhibited higher levels of Negative Affectivity. A relationship between parents' higher educational level and infants' higher levels of Surgency was found for both countries. No gender or age differences were observed for any of the three temperament dimensions. These results and their implications for cultural studies are discussed.

Intervenciones basadas en la mentalización para padres y educadores: una revisión sistemática / Mentalization based interventions for parents and educators: a systematic review

Estudios recientes han mostrado la importancia de la mentalización y/o función reflexiva de los cuidadores como una de las variables que predice el desarrollo de esta habilidad y el apego seguro en el niño/a. A partir de estos antecedentes se revisa la literatura existente sobre intervenciones psicológicas focalizadas en promover la mentalización en padres y/o personal educativo de niños/as en etapa preescolar. Se consideran 17 estudios publicados entre los años 2000 y 2013. Los resultados muestran que gran parte de los estudios analizan y desarrollan modelos teóricos, siendo incipientes aquellos que consideran los estudios acerca de intervenciones basadas en la mentalización dirigidas a padres y/o agentes educativos. Dentro de estos últimos la mayoría están orientados a intervenciones tempranas en niños/as de 0 a 3 años, siendo escasos los estudios en preescolares (3 a 5 años de edad) dentro de un contexto educativo que reportan los efectos en los niños/as.

Recent studies have shown the importance of mentalizing or reflective function of caregivers as one of the variables that predict awareness and secure attachment in children. From this background there is a review of the literature on psychological interventions focused on promoting mentalizing or reflective function in parents and preschool educators. 17 studies published between 2000 and 2013 are considered. The results show that most of the studies analyzed and developed in theoretical models, with those who consider emerging studies based on mentalizing aimed at parents and educators interventions. Within the latter most are aimed at early intervention in children aged 0-3 years, with few studies in preschool children (3-5 years old) within an educational context that the effects reported in children.

¿Afectan las complicaciones perinatales la respuesta sensible de las madres hacia sus hijos/as de 12 meses? / Do adverse pregnancy outcome affect mothers’ sensitive response to their 12 month children?

La respuesta sensible es una competencia materna ampliamente estudiada por su influencia en el desarrollo infantil y su asociación con las características de la madre, pero en menor medida se ha investigado su relación con las dificultades durante la gestación y el parto. El presente estudio busca identificar la influencia de las complicaciones perinatales sobre la sensibilidad materna en 90 diadas madre-hijo/a entre diez y catorce meses de edad de nivel socioeconómico alto, medio y bajo, residentes en Santiago de Chile. Se aplicó un cuestionario sociodemográfico y las diadas fueron filmadas en una situación de juego libre, la cual fue codificada con la Escala de Sensibilidad del adulto (E.S.A.). Los resultados muestran que la ausencia de complicaciones en el embarazo de la madre y la presencia de complicaciones en el parto, explican una mayor sensibilidad materna un año después. Se observa, además, una influencia significativa del nivel socioeconómico sobre la sensibilidad materna. Se discuten estos resultados y sus implicancias.

Sensitive response is a maternal competence widely studied for its influence in child development, and for its relationship with mother features, however, there is fewer research on its relationship to the difficulties of pregnancy and childbirth. This study seeks to identify the influence of adverse pregnancy outcome on maternal sensitivity in 90 dyads mother-child between ten and fourteen months age, of high, medium and low socioeconomic status, residents in Santiago, Chile. A sociodemographic questionnaire was taken to mothers, and dyads were filmed in a free play situation, which was coded with the Sensitivity Adult Scale (ESA). Results show that absence of difficulties during pregnancy on the mother, as well as presence of them during labor, explain a higher maternal sensitivity one year later. In addition, a significant influence of socioeconomic status on maternal sensitivity had been observed. These results and their implications are discussed.

Intervenciones psicológicas perinatales en depresión materna y vínculo madre-bebé: una revisión sistemática / Psychological perinatal interventions in maternal depression and mother-child bond: a systematic review

La depresión perinatal constituye un trastorno de alta prevalencia con repercusiones negativas en la madre y en el bebé. A partir de estos antecedentes se revisa la literatura existente sobre intervenciones psicológicas focalizadas en reducir la depresión y/o favorecer un vínculo madre-infante positivo desde el embarazo hasta los dos años del niño/a. Se consideran 27 estudios publicados entre los años 1996 y 2012, que incluyen grupos experimental y control. Los resultados muestran que un mayor número de intervenciones se focalizan en la depresión perinatal como variable, distinguiendo entre intervenciones en el embarazo y postparto. Un menor número de estudios se dirige a la calidad del vínculo madre-infante y a ambas variables. Las intervenciones reportadas como exitosas, incluyen intervenciones grupales e individuales dirigidas a favorecer la sensibilidad materna y técnicas corporales.

Perinatal depression constitutes a high prevalence disorder, with negative repercussions in the mother and the baby. From these precedents, this article reviews different psychological interventions developed to reduce depression and/or to promote a mother-infant bond-quality, from pregnancy to children's second year of life. There are considered 27 studies published between 1996 and 2012, with inclusion of experimental and control groups. Results show that most of the interventions are focused in perinatal depression as a variable, differentiating between interventions during pregnancy and at postpartum. A minor number of studies focused on the mother-baby bond quality and to modify both variables in a simultaneous way. Interventions that were reported to be successful considered group and individual interventions focused on promoting maternal sensitivity and corporal techniques.

Medición de la sensibilidad del adulto con niños de 6 a 36 meses de edad: construcción y análisis preliminares de la escala de sensibilidad del adulto, E. S. A. / Adult sensitivity assessment in interaction with 6-36 months old children: design and preliminary analyses of adult sensitivity scale

La sensibilidad del adulto ha sido ampliamente estudiada en la primera infancia, por asociarse a un vínculo de apego seguro con el niño(a). Existen diferentes instrumentos de medición de este constructo, principalmente a través de métodos observacionales. La mayoría de ellos requiere un contexto experimental o extensa capacitación. El objetivo del presente estudio es crear un nuevo instrumento para medir la sensibilidad en adultos significativos para el niño(a) de 6 a 36 meses de edad, de manera simple, denominado Escala de Sensibilidad del Adulto, E.S.A. Se evalúa una breve interacción de juego libre, la cual es filmada y codificada. A continuación se presenta el proceso de construcción del instrumento, sus propiedades psicométricas, el análisis de concordancia interjuez y la confiabilidad. Se analiza una muestra de 99 díadas adulto significativo-niño(a) y se concluye que la E.S.A. presenta muy adecuadas propiedades psicométricas y puede ser utilizada en diferentes contextos familiar, educacional o instituciones.

The adult sensitivity has been extensively studied in early childhood, for it is associated with a secure attachment bond with the child. Different sensitivity measuring instruments have been developed, primarily through observational methods. Most of them require extensive training or a complex experimental s setting. The aim of this study is to develop a new instrument to assess sensitivity in adult caretaker of children aged 6 to 36 months, with few requirements for its use. The context of measurement involved a brief free-play interaction, which is filmed and encoded. The instrument was applied to a sample of 99 significant adult-child dyads and the videos analyzed with a rubric for each sensitivity indicator. Results show that the instrument has adequate psychometric properties and can be used in different familiar, educational or institutional contexts.

Estrés materno y configuración familiar: estudio comparativo en familias chilenas monoparentales y nucleares de bajos ingresos / Maternal Stress and Family Constitution: Comparative Study on Chilean, Single-Mother and Nuclear, Low-Income Families

Los estudios sobre estrés materno durante la crianza infantil han considerado variables contextuales para explicarlo. El nivel socioeconómico (NSE) así como la configuración familiar han sido variables relevantes, asociándose monoparentalidad en familias de bajos ingresos a mayores niveles de estrés materno. Se estudian los niveles de estrés materno en familias chilenas nucleares y monoparentales de NSE bajo, considerando el estrés en distintas dimensiones, asociado al rol materno, a la interacción madre-hijo y a la percepción de dificultades en el niño percibidas por la madre. Se estudia un total de 169 diadas, 80 pertenecientes a familias monoparentales y 89 pertenecientes a familias nucleares con niños entre los 4 y 15 meses de edad. Se evaluaron los niveles de estrés materno con el Parental Stress Index, versión abreviada, desarrollado por R. Abidin (1995). Los resultados muestran niveles de estrés significativamente más altos en las madres pertenecientes a familias monoparentales en el estrés asociado al rol materno, a la percepción del niño como difícil y en el estrés total.

Studies on maternal stress during child raising have taken into consideration contextual variables to explain it. The socioeconomic level, as well as the family constitution have been relevant variables, associating single-parenting in low-income families with greater levels of maternal stress. Maternal stress levels in Chilean, nuclear and single-mother low income families are studied, considering stress in various dimensions, associated to the maternal role, to the mother-child interaction and to the difficulties the mother perceives in the child. 169 Dyads are studied, 80 of them of single-mother families and the other 89 of nuclear families, with children between the ages of 4 to 15 months. Maternal stress levels were measured with the Parental Stress Index, abbreviated version, developed by R. Abidin (1995). The results show significantly higher stress levels in mothers of single-parent families on stress associated to the maternal role, to the perception of a difficult child, and to total stress.

Estudio de la vinculación que tienen los niños y niñas escolares con sus perros y los efectos socioemocionales de este vínculo / The bond between school-age children and their dogs, and the socioemotional effects of this bond

Estudios internacionales avalan los beneficios de la tenencia de mascotas en la calidad de vida de los niños, sin embargo, en Chile no hay investigaciones sobre este tema. Por eso, el objetivo de este estudio fue investigar la vinculación que tienen los niños y niñas escolares con sus perros y los efectos sociemocionales de este vínculo, específicamente en relación al autoconcepto y percepción de apoyo social. Aparecen diferencias con resultados de investigaciones internacionales, ya que no se observa una diferencia significativa en autoconcepto o percepción de apoyo social entre niños con y sin perro. No obstante, aparece como significativo el que niños con un autoconcepto más bajo en popularidad muestran un vínculo más cercano con sus mascotas que aquellos que se perciben como populares.

Numerous international studies have proved that owning a pet can enhance the quality of life of school-age children; however, there have been no such studies in Chile. The objective of the present study is to analyzes the bond between school-age children and their dogs, and the socioemotional effects of such bond, in particular as it relates to self-identity and the perception of social support. Some differences appear in the results of international studies, in the sense that no significant difference can be observed in terms of self-identity or perceived social support between children who own a dog and children who don’t. However, it is significant that children who perceive themselves as unpopular have a stronger bond with their pets than those who perceive themselves as popular.

Mind mindedness o la capacidad del adulto para tratar al niño(a) como unindividuo con mente: nuevas perspectivas para el estudio de la interacción entre el(la) niño(a) preescolar y sus figuras de apego / Mind mindedness or the ability of adults to treat the child as minded individual: new perspectives for the study of the interaction between a preschool child and their attachment figures

A partir de los 3 años de edad, el(la) niño(a) preescolar adquiere la habilidad para razonar sobre sus propias emociones, creencias y deseos, por lo que, además de una respuesta sensible, necesita de una actitud mentalizante del adulto que lo ayude a tomar conciencia de su mente y a comprender su mundo interno a través del lenguaje. En este contexto, el constructo de Mind Mindedness permite conceptualizar esta capacidad del adulto significativo(a), para comprender en mejor medida la emergencia de la teoría de la mente y el vínculo de apego en el(la) niño(a) preescolar. Este artículo expone una revisión del desarrollo teórico y empírico que está a la base del constructo Mind Mindedness y discute sus principales aportes al estudio, comprensión e intervención en la interacción entre el(la) niño(a) preescolar y su figura de apego.

Upon three years old, the pre-school child develops the avility of thinking on his/her own emotions, feelings and yearnings. In addition to a sensitive respond from their caregivers, the child needs a mentalizing answer from the adults which helps him/her to take conscious of his/her mind, and thus helping the child to comprehend his/her inner world by means of language. Within this context, the concept of Mind Mindedness allows to conceptualize this competence of the significant adult, in order to comprehend the implication of the theory of the mind and the attachment bond in the pre-school child. This article show a review of the theoretic and empiric development, which is at the basis of Mind Mindedness, and discusses its main contributions to the study, comprehension and intervention between the preschool child and his/hers attachment figure.