A new 3D center of mass control approach for FES-assisted standing: First experimental evaluation with a humanoid robot.

This paper proposes a new control framework to restore the coordination between upper (functional) and lower (paralyzed) limbs in the context of functional electrical stimulation in completely paraplegic individuals. A kinematic decoupling between the lower and upper limbs controls the 3D whole-body center of mass location and the relative foot positions by acting only on the lower-limb joints. The upper limbs are free to move under voluntary control, and are seen as a perturbation for the lower limbs. An experimental validation of this paradigm using a humanoid robot demonstrates the real-time applicability and robustness of the method. Different scenarios mimicking the motion of a healthy subject are investigated. The proposed method can maintain bipedal balance and track the desired center of mass trajectories under movement disturbances of the upper limbs with an error inferior to 0.01 m under any conditions.

Botulinum toxin therapy for neurogenic detrusor hyperactivity versus augmentation enterocystoplasty: impact on the quality of life of patients with SCI.

STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. OBJECTIVES: To compare quality of life (QoL) in patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) who underwent overactive detrusor treatment by botulinum toxin (BT) versus augmentation cystoplasty (AC). SETTING: France. METHODS: Prospective and descriptive study: Patients with a refractory overactive bladder due to SCI treated by at least two successive injections of BT or by AC. QoL was assessed using Qualiveen-30 (Q30). Clinical data and urodynamic parameters were collected. RESULTS: Thirty patients were included between March 2013 and March 2014: 14 in arm 1 (BT injections) and 16 in arm 2 (AC). Mean postoperative time after AC was 9.94 years. Mean BT injections already performed was 6.36. Qol was significantly lower in arm 1-Q30 score 1.625 versus arm 2-Q30 score 1.077 (P=0.037). Continence control was significantly higher in arm 2. Fourteen patients were completely continent (87.5%) in arm 2, whereas only 6 (42.3%) were continent in arm 1 (P=0.0187). Urinary infection, reflux, diverticula and stones were almost at a similar occurrence level. CONCLUSIONS: QoL was found to be higher with an AC compared with BT injections. Long-time intervals between two injections and advantages specific to AC might explain in part these findings.

Neural and muscular mechanisms of electrically induced fatigue in patients with spinal cord injury.

STUDY DESIGN: Intervention study. OBJECTIVES: The present study aimed at examining whether spinal and/or peripheral alterations are in the origin of neuromuscular fatigue development induced by intermittent neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) in subjects with complete spinal cord injury (SCI). SETTING: Neurological Rehabilitation Center CMN Propara, Montpellier, France. METHODS: Thirteen volunteers with complete SCI participated in the study. The right triceps surae muscle was fatigued using a 30-Hz NMES protocol (2 s ON-2 s OFF) composed of three series of five trains. Spinal excitability (assessed by the H-reflex), muscle excitability (assessed by the M-wave), muscle contractile properties (assessed by mechanical response parameters) and torque evoked by NMES were tested before and after each five-train series. RESULTS: NMES-evoked torque significantly decreased throughout the protocol (P<0.001). This decrease was accompanied by a significant increase in M-wave amplitude (P<0.001), whereas H-reflex and the Hmax/Mmax ratio were not significantly modified. The amplitude of the mechanical response was significantly decreased at the end of the protocol (P<0.05). CONCLUSION: The results indicate significant fatigue development, which was attributed to impaired cross-bridge force-generating capacity, without modification of spinal excitability nor muscle excitability.

[Acute traumatic spinal cord injuries: Epidemiology and prospects]. / Les lésions médullaires traumatiques : épidémiologie et perspectives.

OBJECTIVE: Specify the epidemiological data on the acute spinal cord injuries and define a group of patients that could benefit from cellular transplantation therapy designed with the aim of repair and regeneration of damaged spinal cord tissues. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Five years monocentric (Gui-de-Chauliac Hospital, Montpellier, France) retrospective analysis of patients suffering from spinal cord injury (SCI). Spinal cord injured-patients, defined as sensory-motor complete, underwent a clinical evaluation following American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) and functional type 2 Spinal Cord Independence Measure (SCIM2) scorings as well as radiological evaluation through spinal cord magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). RESULTS: One hundred and fifty-seven medical records were reviewed and we selected and re-examined 20 patients with complete thoracic spinal cord lesion. Clinical and radiological evaluations of these patients demonstrated, in 75 % of the cases, an absence of clinical progression after a mean of 49months. Radiological abnormalities were constantly present in the initial (at the admission to hospital) and control (re-evaluation) MRI and no reliable predictive criteria of prognosis had been found. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION: We compare our results to the literature and discuss advantages and limits of cellular transplantation strategies for these patients.

Physical and rehabilitation medicine (PRM) care pathways: "spinal cord injury".

This document is part of a series of documents designed by the French Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine Society (SOFMER) and the French Federation of PRM (FEDMER). These documents describe the needs for or a specific type of patients; PRM care objectives, human and material resources to be implemented, chronology as well as expected outcomes. "Care pathways in PRM" is a short document designed to enable the reader (physicians, decision-maker, administrator, lawyer or finance manager) to quickly apprehend the needs of these patients and the available therapeutic care structures for proper organization and pricing of these activities. The patients after spinal cord injury are divided into five categories according to the severity of the impairments, each one being treated according to the same six parameters according to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (WHO), while taking into account personal and environmental factors that could influence the needs of these patients.

Therapeutic education in persons with spinal cord injury: a review of the literature.

INTRODUCTION: Therapeutic education is an integrant part of the physical medicine and rehabilitation care of persons with spinal cord injury. It is often conducted in an empirical manner. The objective of this literature review was to evaluate the state of the art regarding the evaluations and therapeutic education programs for persons with spinal cord injury. MATERIAL AND METHOD: Systematic review of the literature with Medline and Cochrane Library databases from 1966 to 2009. RESULTS: The main areas of interest, for the evaluations found in the literature, focused on clinical variables, patients' knowledge, health behaviors, functional independence and quality of life but also psychological dimensions such as health locus of control, representations, abilities to resolve problems and self-perceived efficacy. Ten clinical studies were retained for analysis. These clinical studies were built around various health and educational models. An impact was highlighted on clinical variables (pressure ulcer, urinary tract infection), knowledge, quality of life and psychological criteria (depression, self-perceived efficacy, coping and problem solving strategies). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: The global level of evidence on the effects of therapeutic education in persons with spinal cord injury is low because of the number of studies and their low statistical power and requires additional studies. However, the analysis of the literature allows for discussing the organization of therapeutic education in clinical practice.

Evaluating self-reported pressure ulcer prevention measures in persons with spinal cord injury using the revised Skin Management Needs Assessment Checklist: reliability study.

STUDY DESIGN: Cross-cultural adaptation and reliability study. OBJECTIVE: To translate, evaluate the reliability and cross-culturally adapt the Skin Management Needs Assessment Checklist (SMnac), a questionnaire evaluating the knowledge on pressure ulcer (PU) prevention measures in persons with spinal cord injury (SCI). SUBJECTS: 138 persons with SCI, mean age 45.9 years, mean time since injury 94 months. MATERIAL AND METHOD: The study was carried out in two stages. First, the questionnaire went through a forward-backward translation process and was cross-culturally adapted, according to a validated methodology for self-reported measures. Then, the test-retest reliability was evaluated on a population of persons with SCI. RESULTS: The standardized back-translation and cross-cultural adaptation led to the revised Smack grid, with the addition of seven items representing an update of PU prevention measures. The reliability was excellent (intraclass correlation coefficient: 0.899). CONCLUSION: The revised SMnac is an adaptation of the SMnac, including therapeutic education frameworks and the latest PU prevention practices. It appears to be a reliable tool for assessing the knowledge and benefits of PU prevention in persons with SCI. Further studies are needed to explore its validity and responsiveness to change.

Pronating osteotomy of the radius for forearm supination contracture in high-level tetraplegic patients: technique and results.

We report the results of performing a pronating osteotomy of the radius, coupled with other soft-tissue procedures, as part of an upper limb functional surgery programme in tetraplegic patients with supination contractures. In total 12 patients were reviewed with a mean follow-up period of 60 months (12 to 109). Pre-operatively, passive movement ranged from a mean of 19.2 degrees pronation (-70 degrees to 80 degrees ) to 95.8 degrees supination (80 degrees to 140 degrees ). A pronating osteotomy of the radius was then performed with release of the interosseous membrane. Extension of the elbow was restored postoperatively in 11 patients, with key-pinch reconstruction in nine. At the final follow-up every patient could stabilise their hand in pronation, with a mean active range of movement of 79.6 degrees (60 degrees to 90 degrees ) in pronation and 50.4 degrees (0 degrees to 90 degrees ) in supination. No complications were observed. The mean strength of extension of the elbow was 2.7 (2 to 3) MRC grading. Pronating osteotomy stabilises the hand in pronation while preserving supination, if a complete release of the interosseous membrane is also performed. This technique fits well into surgical programmes for enhancing upper limb function.

Strategies for spinal cord repair after injury: a review of the literature and information.

INTRODUCTION: Thanks to the Internet, we can now have access to more information about spinal cord repair. Spinal cord injured (SCI) patients request more information and hospitals offer specific spinal cord repair medical consultations. OBJECTIVE: Provide practical and relevant elements to physicians and other healthcare professionals involved in the care of SCI patients in order to provide adequate answers to their questions. METHOD: Our literature review was based on English and French publications indexed in PubMed and the main Internet websites dedicated to spinal cord repair. RESULTS: A wide array of research possibilities including notions of anatomy, physiology, biology, anatomopathology and spinal cord imaging is available for the global care of the SCI patient. Prevention and repair strategies (regeneration, transplant, stem cells, gene therapy, biomaterials, using sublesional uninjured spinal tissue, electrical stimulation, brain/computer interface, etc.) for the injured spinal cord are under development. It is necessary to detail the studies conducted and define the limits of these new strategies and benchmark them to the realistic medical and rehabilitation care available to these patients. CONCLUSION: Research is quickly progressing and clinical trials will be developed in the near future. They will have to answer to strict methodological and ethical guidelines. They will first be designed for a small number of patients. The results will probably be fragmented and progress will be made through different successive steps.

Clinical practice guidelines for chronic neuropathic pain in the spinal cord injury patient: introduction and methodology.

OBJECTIVE: To develop clinical practice guidelines for the identification, evaluation and treatment of chronic neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury patients. METHODS AND RESULTS: the methodology was developed by the SOFMER (the French Society for Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation) and incorporates both guidelines for clinical practice and an expert consensus meeting. Following the creation of a Steering Committee and a Scientific Committee, twelve relevant questions were developed. Two experts from different medical specialties were assigned to each question. The scientific literature was assessed according to the grading scale used by the French Agency for Accreditation and Evaluation in Healthcare (ANAES). The conclusions from the experts' literature analysis were presented at the 2007 SOFMER congress. Lastly, a multidisciplinary expert panel validated the guidelines. CONCLUSION: Each question generated a number of good practice guidelines, based on the available scientific level of proof and expert opinion.

Chronic neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury patients: what relevant additional clinical exams should be performed?

OBJECTIVE: Study the indications and level of evidence of clinical exams that might be relevant in exploring the causes of neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury patients. METHOD: Literature review from three databases: PubMed, Embase, Pascal. RESULTS: Disparity and heterogeneity of the answers given by the attendees to the experts conference of the French Society of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (SOFMER) and the physicians surveyed via the SOFMER website. These results corroborate the shortage of available data on this topic in the literature. From this analysis, we can however validate spinal MRI imaging as a mandatory exam for the diagnosis of post-traumatic syringomyelia (cystic myelopathy) - this exam can even be considered a Gold Standard. Furthermore, we can also recommend using electrodiagnostic studies for compressive neuropathies. However, it is not possible to validate the relevance of additional clinical exams for radicular pain, segmental deafferentation pain, central deafferentation pain as well as Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS) type 1; for these types of pain we can only formulate experts recommendations in light of the dearth of available data on the subject. CONCLUSION: For the neuropathic pain of spinal cord injury patients' additional clinical exams should be used in the framework of an etiological diagnosis.

What are the risk factors of occurence and chronicity of neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury patients?

OBJECTIVE: Analyze the epidemiological data on neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury patients and determine the risk factors for its occurrence and chronicity. METHOD: Review and analysis of the literature. RESULTS: Epidemiological data report that 40% of spinal cord injury (SCI) patients suffer from neuropathic pain and 40% of these patients report an intense neuropathic pain. Some factors do not seem to be predictive for the onset of neuropathic pain: the level of injury, complete or incomplete injury, the existence of an initial surgery, sex. However, old age at the time of injury, bullet injury as the cause of trauma, early onset of pain in the weeks following the injury, their initial nature, intensity and continuous pain, as well as associated symptoms all appear to be negative prognostic factors. CONCLUSION: Neuropathic pain in SCI patients is a major issue, its determining factors still need to be evaluated properly by refining the epidemiological data.

What is the efficacy of physical therapeutics for treating neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury patients?

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate the place and level of proof of physical therapeutics for treating neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury (SCI) patients. METHOD: Literature review from three databases: PubMed, Embase, Pascal. The following keywords were selected: chronic neuropathic pain/non-pharmacological treatment; transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, physiotherapy, acupuncture, physical therapy, transcranial magnetic stimulation, heat therapy, ice therapy, cold therapy, massage, ultrasound, alternative treatment, complementary treatment, occupational therapy. The articles were analyzed using the double-reading mode. RESULTS: Three techniques emerge from the literature: magnetic or electrical transcranial stimulation, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation and acupuncture. Even though the first method is not easily accessible on a daily basis it is the one that yields the most promising results validated by Grade B studies. Healthcare professionals remain faithful to pain-relieving transcutaneous neurostimulation for both segmental neuropathic pain and below-level central neuropathic pain. Acupuncture is advocated by Canadian teams and could offer some interesting options; however, to this day, it does not have the methodological support and framework required to validate its efficacy. All other physical therapies are used in a random way. Only below-level massages are advocated by the patients themselves. CONCLUSION: To this day, no study can validate the integration of physical therapy as part of the array of therapeutics used for treating neuropathic pain in SCI patients. In the future, it will require controlled and randomized therapeutic studies on homogenous groups of SCI patients, to control the various confusion factors.

Chronic neuropathic pain of spinal cord injury: what is the effectiveness of psychocomportemental management?

OBJECTIVES: To determine the efficacy of treating neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury (SCI) patients by psychological, cognitive or behavioral therapies and suggest recommendations for clinical practices. MATERIAL AND METHOD: The methodology used, proposed by the French Society of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (SOFMER), includes a systematic review of the literature, the gathering of information regarding current clinical practices and a validation by a multidisciplinary panel of experts. RESULTS: Due to the dearth of literature on the subject only one study is found, evaluating the efficacy of these therapies on neuropathic pain but not on the chronic neuropathic pain of SCI patients. The results show a greater efficacy on the associated symptoms: anxiety and depression level, sleep disorders, rather than the pain itself. CONCLUSION: There is no scientific evidence for validating this type of pain management care. However, the high level of evidence of the articles studying the efficacy of these therapies in patients with chronic pain suggest that it could be applied to SCI patients. These techniques must be developed in France and further studies should be conducted on SCI patients affected by neuropathic pain.

Chronic neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury patients: what is the impact of social and environmental factors on care management?

OBJECTIVE: In order to refine therapeutic strategies for spinal cord injury (SCI) patients with chronic neuropathic pain, it appears essential to assess the impact of socioenvironmental factors on the onset of pain or its chronic nature. The aim of this article is to answer the following question regarding these factors: is there any evidence that managing these social and environmental factors could have a positive impact on the treatment of chronic neuropathic pain in SCI patients? METHODOLOGY: The English keywords were: Chronic neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury/human/adult and rehabilitation; functional independence; community integration; family support; employment; social environment; social support; life satisfaction; quality of life. RESULTS: Thirty-four articles were selected, the data extracted from the literature highlighted several socioenvironmental factors that could have a potential impact on the onset of neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury patients. CONCLUSION: It was impossible to directly answer this question based on the literature review only. Nonetheless, some socioenvironmental factors can be considered as potential triggering factors for the onset of chronic pain in spinal cord injury patients, i.e. a low degree of independence (C), low socioeconomic status (B), unemployment (B), and family and friends with a "negative attitude" (C).

The chronic neuropathic pain of spinal cord injury: which efficiency of neuropathic stimulation?

OBJECTIVE: Determine the efficacy of spinal cord stimulation (SCS) for treating neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury (SCI) patients. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We proceeded with a data analysis of the French and English medical literature with the following keywords: chronic neuropathic pain, spinal cord stimulation. The quality of every selected article was analyzed according to criteria established by the French National Health Authority (HAS). RESULTS: Eighty-three articles were read, 27 of them report clinical studies on SCS on at least one SCI patient. No article had a level of proof lower than 4. CONCLUSION: There is no significant level of proof to recommend the use of this technique in this indication. Conducting further studies, either physiological or clinical, could help to promote this technique with very minor adverse effects in an indication which, to this day, has no gold standard.

Chronic neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury: efficiency of deep brain and motor cortex stimulation therapies for neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury patients.

OBJECTIVES: In spite of all the scientific advances in pharmacological research, a great number of patients cannot efficiently manage their chronic pain with conventional pharmacological treatments. Brain stimulation techniques have considerably improved these last 10 years. These techniques could be an interesting option after a rigorous selection of patients. We aim to evaluate the efficacy of brain stimulation (deep brain stimulation [DBS] and motor cortex stimulation [MCS]) within the framework of neuropathic pain management in spinal cord injury (SCI) patients and elaborate some recommendations. MATERIAL AND METHOD: The methodology used, proposed by the French Society of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (SOFMER), includes a systematic review of the literature, the gathering of information regarding current clinical practices and a validation by a multidisciplinary panel of experts. RESULTS: DBS is more effective on nociceptive pain than deafferentation pain. For the central pain of SCI patients, the long-term efficacy of DBS is quite low (three patients out of 19, amounting to 16%). MCS seems to have an interesting potential with a long-term efficacy of 57% (four patients out of seven), with less complications than DBS. CONCLUSION: For central pain in SCI patients, there is no sufficient level of evidence to validate the use of DBS. There is however a low level of evidence for MCS. These results must be validated by larger comparative or controlled versus placebo clinical studies.

Pressure ulcer risk factors in persons with spinal cord injury part 2: the chronic stage.

INTRODUCTION: Pressure ulcers (PUs) are a common complication following spinal cord injury (SCI). Prevalence for persons in the chronic SCI stage varies between 15 and 30%. The risk assessment scales used nowadays were designed on pathophysiological concepts and are not SCI-specific. Recently, an epidemiological approach to PU risk factors has been proposed for designing an SCI-specific assessment tool. The first results seem quite disappointing, probably because of the level of evidence of the risk factors used. OBJECTIVE: To determine PU risk factors correlated to the chronic stage of SCI. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Systematic review of the literature. RESULTS: There are several PU risk factors for chronic SCI stage: socio-demographics, neurological, medical or behavioral. The level of evidence varies: it is quite high for the socio-demographics and neurological factors and low for behavioral factors. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Behavioral risk factors (relieving the pressure, careful skin monitoring, smoking) are probably the ones for which a preventive strategy can be established. It is important to develop specific assessment tools for these behavioral risk factors to determine their relevance and evaluate the effect of therapeutic educational programs on persons with SCI.

Pressure ulcer risk factors in persons with SCI: Part I: Acute and rehabilitation stages.

BACKGROUND: Pressure ulcers (PUs) are a common complication following a spinal-cord injury (SCI). Good prevention requires identifying the individuals at risk for developing PUs. Risk assessment scales used nowadays were designed on pathophysiological concepts and are not SCI-specific. Recently, an epidemiological approach to PU risk factors has been proposed to design an SCI-specific assessment tool. The first results seem quite disappointing, probably because of the level of evidence of the risk factors used. OBJECTIVE: To determine PU risk factors correlated to the patients with SCI, medical care management during the acute as well as in the rehabilitation and chronic stages. This first part focuses on identifying the risk factors during the acute and rehabilitation stages. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Systematic review of the literature. RESULTS: Six studies met our inclusion criteria. The risk factors during the acute stage of an SCI are essentially linked to care management and treatment modalities. There is insufficient evidence to make a recommendation on medical risk factors, except for low blood pressure on admission to the Emergency Room, with a moderate level of evidence. Regarding the rehabilitation stage, no study was deemed relevant. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Additional observational studies are needed, for both the acute and rehabilitation stages, to improve this level of evidence. However, this systematic review unveiled the need for a carefully assessed t care management and the related practices, especially during the acute stage of an SCI.