Toxicology of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol and its esters: a narrative review.

3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) is a chiral molecule naturally existing as a racemic mixture of (R)- and (S)-enantiomers. It was thoroughly investigated during the 1970s as a male antifertility drug until research was abandoned because of the side effects observed in toxicity studies. More than 20 years later, 3-MCPD, both in the free form and esterified to the fatty acids, was detected in vegetable oil and discovered to be a widespread contaminant in different processed foods. This review summarises the main toxicological studies on 3-MCPD and its esters. Current knowledge shows that the kidney and reproductive system are the primary targets of 3-MCPD toxicity, followed by neurological and immune systems. Despite uncertainties, in vivo studies suggest that renal and reproductive toxicity is mediated by toxic metabolites, leading to inhibition of glycolysis and energy depletion. Few acute, short-term, and subchronic toxicity studies have investigated the 3-MCPD esters. The pattern of toxicity was similar to that of free 3-MCPD. Some evidence suggests that the toxicity of 3-MCPD diesters may be milder than 3-MCPD, likely because of an incomplete enzymatic hydrolysis in the equivalent free form in the gastrointestinal tract. Further research to clarify absorption, metabolism, and long-term toxicity of 3-MCPD esters would be pivotal to improve the risk assessment of these compounds via food.

Canned Fish Consumption and Upper Digestive Tract Cancers.

Canned fish is a widely consumed and affordable food whose effect on cancer risk has been little investigated. We studied its effect on risk of upper digestive tract cancers using data from a network of hospital-based case-control studies from Northern Italy providing information about canned fish consumption as a separate item and including a total of 946 patients with oral cavity and pharynx cancer, 304 patients with esophageal cancer, 230 patients with gastric cancer and 3273 controls. Twenty-three percent of patients with cancer of the oral cavity or pharynx and 26% of those with cancer of the stomach consumed ≥1 serving per week of canned fish, compared to 40% and 49% of the respective control group. Among cases of esophageal cancer and controls 22% consumed ≥1 serving per week of canned fish. Odds ratios for ≥1 vs <1 portion per week were 0.79 (95% Confidence Interval, CI: 0.64-0.97) for cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx, and 0.59 (95% CI: 0.41-0.86) for stomach cancer, whereas there was no inverse association with esophageal cancer. These findings suggest a favorable role of canned fish for selected upper digestive tract cancers.

Inverse Association between Canned Fish Consumption and Colorectal Cancer Risk: Analysis of Two Large Case-Control Studies.

Fish is among the foods exerting favourable effects on colorectal cancer (CRC), but the possible role of canned fish has been insufficiently investigated. We aimed to investigate the relationship between canned fish consumption and CRC risk. We analysed data from two case−control studies conducted between 1992 and 2010 in several Italian areas, comprising a total of 2419 incident cases and 4723 hospital controls. Canned fish consumption was analysed according to the weekly frequency of consumption as <1 serving per week (s/w) (reference category), 1 < 2 s/w, and ≥2 s/w. We calculated odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) using unconditional logistic regression models, adjusting for several recognised confounding factors. Overall, canned fish consumption was lower among cases than among controls (23.8% vs. 28.6%). An inverse association was found between canned fish consumption and CRC risk with a significant trend in risk (OR = 0.81, 95% CI: 0.71−0.92 for intermediate consumption and OR = 0.66, 95% CI: 0.51−0.85 for the highest one), which was consistent across strata of several covariates. This study is the first to offer a basis of support for canned fish consumption as a component of a healthy diet, and it has relevant public health implications given the high ranking of CRC in incidence and mortality worldwide.

Estimating temporal and spatial levels of PAHs in air using rain samples and SPME analysis: Feasibility evaluation in an urban scenario.

There is a growing interest in evaluating the role of concentration changes of contaminants in temporal and spatial gradients. This is often relevant for fast moving environmental phases such as air and water. In this paper, small volumes of rainwater were sampled as proxy for air concentrations of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): rain was collected in three sampling sites (high traffic, restricted traffic and a low traffic zone) in Como. Solid phase micro extraction (SPME) was used for the extraction to reduce required sample volumes, allowing the acquisition of more samples in time. Rain samples highlighted a spatial and temporal variability along a traffic gradient in the Como city, especially for the most abundant PAH, e.g. phenanthrene. Air concentrations were then estimated from rain concentrations. The results show that this is a cheap and promising method, although requiring rainfall/snowfall conditions, that can be used to perform monitoring campaign of air concentrations at a higher temporal and spatial resolution than the adopted standard methods (e.g. high-volume air samplers). The results could be employed for evaluation of the exposure, emission profiles and calibration of fate models.

Effect of fructose instead of glucose or sucrose on cardiometabolic markers: a systematic review and meta-analysis of isoenergetic intervention trials.

CONTEXT: Free, or added, sugars are considered important determinants in the pandemics of obesity and associated chronic diseases, and fructose has emerged as the sugar of main concern. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this review was to assess the evidence of the effects of isoenergetic replacement of fructose or high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) for glucose or sucrose on cardiometabolic markers in controlled dietary intervention trials. DATA SOURCES: The electronic databases PubMed/MEDLINE, the Cochrane Library, and Embase were searched from 1980 to May 5, 2020. STUDY SELECTION: Studies were eligible if they measured at least one of the following outcomes: total cholesterol, low- and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triacylglycerols, apolipoprotein A1, apolipoprotein B, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, fasting glucose, and body weight. DATA EXTRACTION: For each outcome, the mean values and the corresponding measure of dispersion were extracted after the intervention or control diet. DATA ANALYSIS: Fixed-effects and random-effects models were used to pool study-specific estimates. Between-study heterogeneity was assessed by the χ2 test and the I2 statistic and publication bias by the Egger test and funnel plots. RESULTS: Twenty-five studies involving 1744 volunteers were identified. No significant effects were found when fructose or HFCS was substituted for glucose, except for a slight decrease in diastolic blood pressure when fructose was substituted for glucose. Similarly, no effects were found when fructose or HFCS was substituted for sucrose, except for a small increase, of uncertain clinical significance, of apolipoprotein B when HFCS was substituted for sucrose. CONCLUSIONS: Isoenergetic substitution of fructose or HFCS for glucose or sucrose has no significant effect on most of the cardiometabolic markers investigated; however, some results were affected by residual between-study heterogeneity and studies with high or unclear risk of bias. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: PROSPERO registration number CRD42016042930.

Micropollutants in Lake Como water in the context of circular economy: A snapshot of water cycle contamination in a changing pollution scenario.

In this work we evaluated the contamination of the water cycle in Como Bay by measuring 38 selected pharmaceuticals in two main wastewater treatment plant in Switzerland and in Italy, two influents (River Breggia and Cosia), lake water (epilimnion and hypolimnion), as well as potable water. The collection of comparative information on the presence and environmental fate of these substances contributes to set specific environmental quality standard (EQS). The results presented show that the contamination of the lake reflects national health policies, which deeply influence the usage of chemicals. The outcomes of this study give an overall picture of contamination in the area, showing that concentrations of the measured compounds are generally low and under the commonly adopted ecotoxicological and toxicological thresholds. Only in a few cases did the contamination appear to be noteworthy, for some of the most persistent compounds (antibiotic macrolides, diclofenac, irbesartan, carbamazepine and dihydrocarbamazepine, bezafibrate, furosemide and hydrochlorothiazide). Some concern can be also be raised for the presence of antibiotics (clarithromycin) in drinking water, although at very low levels, due to the problem of antibiotic resistance.

Identification of Sulfonated and Hydroxy-Sulfonated Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Metabolites in Soil: New Classes of Intermediate Products of PCB Degradation?

In this paper we describe the identification of two classes of contaminants: sulfonated-PCBs and hydroxy-sulfonated-PCBs. This is the first published report of the detection of these chemicals in soil. They were found, along with hydroxy-PCBs, in soil samples coming from a site historically contaminated by the industrial production of PCBs and in background soils. Sulfonated-PCB levels were approximately 0.4-0.8% of the native PCB levels in soils and about twice the levels of hydroxy-sulfonated-PCBs and hydroxy-PCBs. The identification of sulfonated-PCBs was confirmed by the chemical synthesis of reference standards, obtained through the sulfonation of an industrial mixture of PCBs. We then reviewed the literature to investigate for the potential agents responsible for the sulfonation. Furthermore, we predicted their physicochemical properties and indicate that, given the low pKa of sulfonated- and hydroxy-sulfonated-PCBs, they possess negligible volatility, supporting the case for in situ formation from PCBs. This study shows the need of understanding their origin, their role in the degradation path of PCBs, and their fate, as well as their (still unknown) toxicological and ecotoxicological properties.

Risk assessment of a mixture of emerging contaminants in surface water in a highly urbanized area in Italy.

A complex mixture of emerging contaminants (ECs) occurs in the environment, with potential effects for aquatic organisms and human health. This study assessed the environmental risk of a mixture of ECs detected in the most urbanized and industrialized area of Italy. Water samples were collected in the Lambro river basin to the north and south of Milan, and were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) was performed calculating the Risk Quotients (RQs) for each EC as the ratio of Measured Concentrations (MECs) and Predicted No Effect Concentrations. The ERA was also conducted for the whole mixture of ECs by considering the RQs of the components. The results confirmed that ECs are ubiquitous in urbanized areas. The ERA for the single pollutants identified a panel of substances of environmental concern (estrogens, amoxicillin, clarythromycin, triclosan and nicotine). The ERA for the mixture indicated a potential cumulative risk for the substances that individually could be considered safe, highlighting the importance of taking the whole mixture of ECs into account for the ERA. This information may help establish EU regulations for ECs and environmental quality standards for regulatory purposes.

Perfuorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS), Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA), Brominated Dioxins (PBDDs) and Furans (PBDFs) in Wild and Farmed Organisms at Different Trophic Levels in the Mediterranean Sea.

The present study shows the results of perfuorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), brominated dioxins (PBDDs) and furans (PBDFs) measured in several marine fish and seafood of commercial interest at different trophic levels of the food chain. The aims were to investigate the level of the contamination in Mediterranean aquatic wildlife, and in farmed fish, to assess human exposure associated to fishery products consumption. Samples of wild fish were collected during three different sampling campaigns in different Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 37 areas of the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, farmed fish (gilthead sea bream and European sea bass) from off-shore cages from different marine aquaculture plants. Results showed contamination values of PFOS and PFOA were lower than those detected in sea basins other than the Mediterranean Sea. Concentration values of PFOS were generally higher than those of PFOA; moreover, levels in farmed fish were lower than in wild samples from the Mediterranean Sea. Intake of PFOS and PFOA through fishery products consumption was estimated to be 2.12 and 0.24 ng/kg·BW·day, respectively, for high consumers (95th percentile). Results of 2,3,7,8-substituted congeners of PBDDs and PBDFs were almost all below the limit of detection (LOD), making it difficult to establish the contribution of these compounds to the total contamination of dioxin-like compounds in fish and fishery products.

Dietary fats and cardiovascular health: a summary of the scientific evidence and current debate.

This narrative review summarises the main studies of the role of the different fatty acids in coronary heart disease (CHD) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk and the current scientific debate on dietary recommendations. Reduction and substitution of the saturated fatty acids (SFAs) with the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are still the main dietary recommendation to prevent CHD and CVD. In the last few years, however, the strength of the scientific evidence underlying this dietary advice has been questioned. Recent investigations reappraise the previously declared deleterious role of the SFAs and reduce the positive role of PUFAs, mainly the omega-6, whereas the role of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) remains unclear. In contrast, the negative effects of trans fatty acids (TFAs) seem stronger than previously thought. Finally, criticisms have emerged from a dietary recommendation approach focussed on individual components rather than on wide food items and eating habits.

Monitoring emerging contaminants in the drinking water of Milan and assessment of the human risk.

Emerging Contaminants (ECs) are ubiquitous in waters, arousing concern because of their potential risks for human health and the environment. This study investigated the presence of multiple classes of ECs in 21 wells over the drinking water network of Milan, in the most inhabited and industrialized area of Italy, and assessed the risks for consumers. Samples were analyzed using liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Human risk assessment (HRA) was conducted by comparing the measured concentrations with drinking water thresholds from guidelines or calculated in this study; first considering the exposure to each single EC and then the entire mixture. Thirteen ECs were measured in the low ng/L range, and were generally detected in less than half of the wells. Pharmaceuticals, perfluorinated substances, personal care products, and anthropogenic markers were the most frequently detected. The results of the HRA excluded any risks for consumers in each scenario considered. This is one of the most comprehensive studies assessing the presence of a large number of ECs in the whole drinking water network of a city, and the risks for human health. Results improve the limited information on ECs sources and occurrence in drinking water and help establishing guidelines for regulatory purposes.

Differentiating current and past PCB and PCDD/F sources: The role of a large contaminated soil site in an industrialized city area.

Cities and contaminated areas can be primary or secondary sources of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and other chemicals, into air and soil and can influence the regional level of some of these pollutants. In a contaminated site, the evaluation of such emissions can be crucial in the choice of the remediation technology to be adopted. In the city of Brescia (Northern Italy), more than 100 ha of agricultural areas were contaminated with PCBs, PCDD/Fs and heavy metals, originating from the activities of a former PCB factory. In order to evaluate the current emissions of PCBs and PCDD/Fs from the contaminated site, in a location where other current sources are present, we compared measured and predicted air concentrations, resulting from chemical volatilization from soils as well as fingerprints of Brescia soils and of soils contaminated by specific sources. The results confirm that the contaminated area is still a current and important secondary source of PCBs to the air, and to a lesser extent of PCDFs (especially the more volatile), but not for PCDDs. PCBs in soils have fingerprints similar to highly chlorinated mixtures, indicating contamination by these mixtures and/or a long weathering process. PCB 209 is also present at important levels. PCDD fingerprints in soil cannot be related to current emission sources, while PCDFs are compatible to industrial and municipal waste incineration, although weathering and/or natural attenuation may have played a role in modifying such soil fingerprints. Finally, we combined chemical and microbiological analyses to provide an integrated approach to evaluate soil fingerprints and their variation in a wider perspective, which accounts for the mutual effects between contamination and soil microbiota, a pivotal hint for addressing in situ bioremediation activities.

Effects of free sugars on blood pressure and lipids: a systematic review and meta-analysis of nutritional isoenergetic intervention trials.

BACKGROUND: Sugar has been suggested as a central risk factor in the development of noncommunicable diseases. OBJECTIVE: We assessed the evidence of the effects of free sugars compared with complex carbohydrates on selected cardiovascular disease risk factors. DESIGN: We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of intervention trials to compare diets that provide a given amount of energy from free sugars with a control diet that provides the same amount of energy from complex carbohydrates. The primary outcomes were: blood pressure, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, triacylglycerols, apolipoproteins A-I and B, or very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Body weight was also recorded but was not a primary outcome of the studies. RESULTS: In all, 28 studies involving 510 volunteers were included. When free sugars were substituted for complex carbohydrates, no significant increases were detected in systolic or diastolic blood pressure, and no heterogeneity was observed. There were significant increases in HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triacylglycerols, although for LDL cholesterol and triacylglycerols there was significant heterogeneity between studies and evidence of publication bias. After adjustment for missing studies, these increases lost significance. Subgroup analyses showed that diets providing the largest total energy intake and energy exchange enhanced the effect of free sugars on total and LDL cholesterol and triacylglycerols. The increase of triacylglycerols was no longer significant when studies with the highest risk of bias were excluded or when only randomized trials were considered. Free sugars had no effect on body weight. CONCLUSIONS: In short- or moderate-term isoenergetic intervention trials, the substitution of free sugars for complex carbohydrates had no effect on blood pressure or body weight and an unclear effect on blood lipid profile. Further independent trials are required to assess whether the reduction of free sugars improves cardiovascular disease risk factors. This review was registered at http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero as CRD42016042930.

Wastewater-based epidemiological evaluation of the effect of air pollution on short-acting beta-agonist consumption for acute asthma treatment.

Asthma, one of the most common chronic diseases in the world and a leading cause of hospitalization among children, has been associated with outdoor air pollution. We applied the wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach to study the association between the use of salbutamol, a short-acting beta-agonist used to treat acute bronchospasm, and air pollution in the population of Milan, Italy. Composite 24-h samples of untreated wastewater were collected daily and analyzed for human metabolic residues of salbutamol by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Corresponding daily outdoor concentrations of particular matter up to 10µm (PM10) and 2.5µm (PM2.5) in aerodynamic diameter, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, and benzene were collected from the public air monitoring network. Associations at different lag times (0-10 days) were assessed by a log-linear Poisson regression model. We found significant direct associations between defined daily doses (DDD) of salbutamol and mean daily concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 up to nine days of lag time. The highest rate ratio, and 95% confidence interval (CI), of DDD of salbutamol was 1.06 (95% CI: 1.02-1.10) and 1.07 (95% CI: 1.02-1.12) at seven days of lag time and for an increase of 10 µg/m(3) of PM10 and PM2.5, respectively. Reducing the mean daily PM10 concentration in Milan from 50 to 30µg/m(3) means that 852 (95% CI: 483-1504) daily doses of salbutamol per day would not be used. These results confirm the association between asthma and outdoor PM10 and PM2.5 and prove the potential of the WBE approach to quantitatively estimate the relation between environmental exposures and diseases.

Source discrimination of drug residues in wastewater: The case of salbutamol.

Analytical methods used for pharmaceuticals and drugs of abuse in sewage play a fundamental role in wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) studies. Here quantitative analysis of drug metabolites in raw wastewaters is used to determine consumption from general population. Its great advantage in public health studies is that it gives objective, real-time data about community use of chemicals, highlighting the relationship between environmental and human health. Within a WBE study on salbutamol use in a large population, we developed a procedure to distinguish human metabolic excretion from external source of contamination, possibly industrial, in wastewaters. Salbutamol is mainly excreted as the sulphate metabolite, which is rapidly hydrolyzed to the parent compound in the environment, so this is currently not detected. When a molecule is either excreted un-metabolized or its metabolites are unstable in the environment, studies can be completed by monitoring the parent compound. In this case it is mandatory to assess whether the drug in wastewater is present because of population use or because of a specific source of contamination, such as industrial manufacturing waste. Because commercial salbutamol mainly occurs as a racemic mixture and is stereoselective in the human metabolism, the enantiomeric relative fraction (EFrel) in wastewater samples should reflect excretion, being unbalanced towards one of two enantiomers, if the drug is of metabolic origin. The procedure described involves chiral analysis of the salbutamol enantiomers by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS) and calculation of EFrel, to detect samples where external contamination occurs. Samples were collected daily between October and December 2013 from the Milano Nosedo wastewater treatment plant. Carbamazepine and atenolol were measured in the sewage collector, as "control" drugs. Salbutamol EFrel was highly consistent in all samples during this three-month period, but a limited number of samples had unexpectedly high concentrations where the EFrel was close to that observed of the un-metabolized, commercially available drug, supporting the idea of an external source of contamination, besides human metabolic excretion. Results showed that, when present, non-metabolic daily loads could be evaluated indicating an average of 4.12g/day of salbutamol extra load due to non-metabolic sources. The stereoselectivity in metabolism and enantiomeric ratio analysis appears to be a useful approach in WBE studies to identify different sources of drugs in the environment, when no metabolic products are present at useful analytical levels.

Metals in Mediterranean aquatic species.

Metals such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), vanadium (V), have been determined in species of Mediterranean marine organisms collected from areas supposed to be at background contamination levels. The Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) approach was adopted for the determination of all the metals. Arsenic, Cd and Pb determined in the 42 samples, do not exceed the pertinent maximum level except a sample of hake. In wild fish, the concentration range for Cr, Ni, V and Cu was, respectively: 0.07-0.09, 87.6-124, 0.022-0.075 and 0.79-1.74 µg/g fresh weight (fw). The farmed fish samples show concentration levels below the wild fish ones, except for Cr which range at the same levels. Cadmium and Pb show a high sample number under the quantification limit. The elements do not bio-magnify among the species considered and appear to show low variations in relation to organisms' position in the food chain and at sampling sites.

Critical review of economic evaluation studies of interventions promoting low-fat diets.

Various national and local policies encouraging healthy eating have recently been proposed. The present review aims to summarize and critically assess nutrition-economic evaluation studies of direct (e.g., diet counseling) and indirect (e.g., food labeling) interventions aimed at improving dietary habits. A systematic literature review was performed by searching 5 databases (PubMed, Ovid Medline, EconLit, Agricola, and Embase) using a combination of diet-related (fat, diet, intake, nutrition) and economics-related (cost-effectiveness, cost-benefit, cost-utility, health economics, economic evaluation) key words. The search yielded 36 studies that varied in target population, study design, economic evaluation method, and health/economic outcome. In general, all provide limited experimental evidence and adopt the framework of economic evaluations in healthcare. Certain important aspects were not well considered: 1) the non-health-related effects of nutrition interventions on well-being; 2) the private nature of food expenditures; 3) the distributional effects on food expenditures across socioeconomic groups; and 4) the general economic implications (e.g., agrofoods, import/export) of such interventions. Overall, the methodology for the economic evaluation of nutrition interventions requires substantial improvement.

Persistent toxic substances in Mediterranean aquatic species.

Fish and fishery products may represent one of the main sources of dietary exposure to persistent toxic substances (PTSs) such as polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, dibenzofurans, and biphenyls; polybromodiphenyl ethers; organochlorine pesticides; perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonate; and inorganic mercury and methyl mercury. In this study, PTS contamination of Mediterranean fish and crustaceans caught in Italian coastal waters was investigated in order to increase the representativeness of the occurrence database for wild species. The objectives were to verify the suitability of regulatory limits for PTSs, identify background concentrations values, if any, and examine the possible sources of variability when assessing the chemical body burdens of aquatic species. Twelve wild species of commercial interest and two farmed fish species were chosen. Excluding methyl mercury, chemical concentrations found in wild species fell generally towards the low ends of the concentration ranges found in Europe according to EFSA database and were quite lower than the tolerable maximum levels established in the European Union; farmed fish always showed contamination levels quite lower than those detected in wild species. The data obtained for wild species seemed to confirm the absence of local sources of contamination in the chosen sampling areas; however, species contamination could exceed regulatory levels even in the absence of specific local sources of contamination as a result of the position in the food web and natural variability in species' lifestyle. A species-specific approach to the management of contamination in aquatic organisms is therefore suggested as an alternative to a general approach based only on contaminant body burden. A chemical-specific analysis performed according to organism position in the food chain strengthened the need to develop this approach.

Influence of a municipal solid waste landfill in the surrounding environment: toxicological risk and odor nuisance effects.

The large amounts of treated waste materials and the complex biological and physicochemical processes make the areas in the proximity of landfills vulnerable not only to emissions of potential toxic compounds but also to nuisance such as odor pollution. All these factors have a dramatic impact in the local environment producing environmental quality degradation. Most of the human health problems come from the landfill gas, from its non-methanic volatile organic compounds and from hazardous air pollutants. In addition several odorants are released during landfill operations and uncontrolled emissions. In this work we present an integrated risk assessment for emissions of hazard compounds and odor nuisance, to describe environmental quality in the landfill proximity. The study was based on sampling campaigns to acquire emission data for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, dioxin-like polychlorobiphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene and vinyl chloride monomer and odor. All concentration values in the emissions from the landfill were measured and used in an air dispersion model to estimate maximum concentrations and depositions in correspondence to five sensitive receptors located in proximity of the landfill. Results for the different scenarios and cancer and non-cancer effects always showed risk estimates which were orders of magnitude below those accepted from the main international agencies (WHO, US EPA). Odor pollution was significant for a limited downwind area near the landfill appearing to be a significant risk factor of the damage to the local environment.

Palm oil and blood lipid-related markers of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of dietary intervention trials.

BACKGROUND: Palm oil (PO) may be an unhealthy fat because of its high saturated fatty acid content. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to assess the effect of substituting PO for other primary dietary fats on blood lipid-related markers of coronary heart disease (CHD) and cardiovascular disease (CVD). DESIGN: We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of dietary intervention trials. Studies were eligible if they included original data comparing PO-rich diets with other fat-rich diets and analyzed at least one of the following CHD/CVD biomarkers: total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, TC/HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol/HDL cholesterol, triacylglycerols, apolipoprotein A-I and B, very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and lipoprotein(a). RESULTS: Fifty-one studies were included. Intervention times ranged from 2 to 16 wk, and different fat substitutions ranged from 4% to 43%. Comparison of PO diets with diets rich in stearic acid, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) showed significantly higher TC, LDL cholesterol, apolipoprotein B, HDL cholesterol, and apolipoprotein A-I, whereas most of the same biomarkers were significantly lower when compared with diets rich in myristic/lauric acid. Comparison of PO-rich diets with diets rich in trans fatty acids showed significantly higher concentrations of HDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein A-I and significantly lower apolipoprotein B, triacylglycerols, and TC/HDL cholesterol. Stratified and meta-regression analyses showed that the higher concentrations of TC and LDL cholesterol, when PO was substituted for MUFAs and PUFAs, were not significant in young people and in subjects with diets with a lower percentage of energy from fat. CONCLUSIONS: Both favorable and unfavorable changes in CHD/CVD risk markers occurred when PO was substituted for the primary dietary fats, whereas only favorable changes occurred when PO was substituted for trans fatty acids. Additional studies are needed to provide guidance for policymaking.