Structure of the human marker of self 5-transmembrane receptor CD47.

CD47 is the only 5-transmembrane (5-TM) spanning receptor of the immune system. Its extracellular domain (ECD) is a cell surface marker of self that binds SIRPα and inhibits macrophage phagocytosis, and cancer immuno-therapy approaches in clinical trials are focused on blocking CD47/SIRPα interaction. We present the crystal structure of full length CD47 bound to the function-blocking antibody B6H12. CD47 ECD is tethered to the TM domain via a six-residue peptide linker (114RVVSWF119) that forms an extended loop (SWF loop), with the fundamental role of inserting the side chains of W118 and F119 into the core of CD47 extracellular loop region (ECLR). Using hydrogen-deuterium exchange and molecular dynamics simulations we show that CD47's ECLR architecture, comprised of two extracellular loops and the SWF loop, creates a molecular environment stabilizing the ECD for presentation on the cell surface. These findings provide insights into CD47 immune recognition, signaling and therapeutic intervention.

Design and Optimization Leading to an Orally Active TTK Protein Kinase Inhibitor with Robust Single Agent Efficacy.

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive disease with high relapse rates and few treatment options. Outlined in previous publications, we identified a series of potent, dual TTK/CLK2 inhibitors with strong efficacy in TNBC xenograft models. Pharmacokinetic properties and kinome selectivity were optimized, resulting in the identification of a new series of potent, selective, and orally bioavailable TTK inhibitors. We describe here the structure-activity relationship of the 2,4-disubstituted-7 H-pyrrolo[2,3- d]pyrimidine series, leading to significant single agent efficacy in a TNBC xenograft model without body weight loss. The design effort evolving an iv-dosed TTK/CLK2 inhibitor to an orally bioavailable TTK inhibitor is described.

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching in Lipidic Cubic Phase (LCP-FRAP): A Precrystallization Assay for Membrane Proteins.

Crystallization of integral membrane proteins (MPs) is notoriously difficult, given their poor stability outside native membrane environment and due to the interference of detergent micelles with crystallization process. MP crystallization in a membrane mimetic matrix, known as lipidic cubic phase (LCP), has recently started to gain popularity, following successes in structure determination of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), transporters, and enzymes. Unlike crystallization trials in aqueous solutions where protein molecules are free to move, diffusion of MPs in LCP is restricted, and, thus, a high level of protein mobility can serve as an early indication for subsequent crystallization success. Prompted by our initial observations that precipitant conditions can dramatically affect diffusion of GPCRs in LCP, we have developed a simple precrystallization assay, based on measuring protein diffusion at a number of different conditions by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (LCP-FRAP). Over the last few years, the LCP-FRAP assay was incorporated in our GPCR structure determination pipeline and proved as a powerful technique allowing for a faster identification of crystallization conditions for many different receptors. The assay is used to screen for the best protein constructs, ligands, LCP host lipids, precipitants, and additives, thereby focusing subsequent crystallization trials on the most promising parts of the multidimensional crystallization phase diagram, substantially increasing the likelihood of finding the right crystallization condition. Here, we describe our LCP-FRAP protocols for guiding GPCR crystallization, which can be adapted to any other MP, and discuss some of the critical considerations related to application of this assay.

Structural basis for bifunctional peptide recognition at human δ-opioid receptor.

Bifunctional µ- and δ-opioid receptor (OR) ligands are potential therapeutic alternatives, with diminished side effects, to alkaloid opiate analgesics. We solved the structure of human δ-OR bound to the bifunctional δ-OR antagonist and µ-OR agonist tetrapeptide H-Dmt-Tic-Phe-Phe-NH2 (DIPP-NH2) by serial femtosecond crystallography, revealing a cis-peptide bond between H-Dmt and Tic. The observed receptor-peptide interactions are critical for understanding of the pharmacological profiles of opioid peptides and for development of improved analgesics.

Structural biology. Crystal structure of the chemokine receptor CXCR4 in complex with a viral chemokine.

Chemokines and their receptors control cell migration during development, immune system responses, and in numerous diseases, including inflammation and cancer. The structural basis of receptor:chemokine recognition has been a long-standing unanswered question due to the challenges of structure determination for membrane protein complexes. Here, we report the crystal structure of the chemokine receptor CXCR4 in complex with the viral chemokine antagonist vMIP-II at 3.1 angstrom resolution. The structure revealed a 1:1 stoichiometry and a more extensive binding interface than anticipated from the paradigmatic two-site model. The structure helped rationalize a large body of mutagenesis data and together with modeling provided insights into CXCR4 interactions with its endogenous ligand CXCL12, its ability to recognize diverse ligands, and the specificity of CC and CXC receptors for their respective chemokines.

Allosteric sodium in class A GPCR signaling.

Despite their functional and structural diversity, G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) share a common mechanism of signal transduction via conformational changes in the seven-transmembrane (7TM) helical domain. New major insights into this mechanism come from the recent crystallographic discoveries of a partially hydrated sodium ion that is specifically bound in the middle of the 7TM bundle of multiple class A GPCRs. This review discusses the remarkable structural conservation and distinct features of the Na(+) pocket in this most populous GPCR class, as well as the conformational collapse of the pocket upon receptor activation. New insights help to explain allosteric effects of sodium on GPCR agonist binding and activation, and sodium's role as a potential co-factor in class A GPCR function.

Structure of the human P2Y12 receptor in complex with an antithrombotic drug.

P2Y receptors (P2YRs), a family of purinergic G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), are activated by extracellular nucleotides. There are a total of eight distinct functional P2YRs expressed in human, which are subdivided into P2Y1-like receptors and P2Y12-like receptors. Their ligands are generally charged molecules with relatively low bioavailability and stability in vivo, which limits our understanding of this receptor family. P2Y12R regulates platelet activation and thrombus formation, and several antithrombotic drugs targeting P2Y12R--including the prodrugs clopidogrel (Plavix) and prasugrel (Effient) that are metabolized and bind covalently, and the nucleoside analogue ticagrelor (Brilinta) that acts directly on the receptor--have been approved for the prevention of stroke and myocardial infarction. However, limitations of these drugs (for example, a very long half-life of clopidogrel action and a characteristic adverse effect profile of ticagrelor) suggest that there is an unfulfilled medical need for developing a new generation of P2Y12R inhibitors. Here we report the 2.6 Å resolution crystal structure of human P2Y12R in complex with a non-nucleotide reversible antagonist, AZD1283. The structure reveals a distinct straight conformation of helix V, which sets P2Y12R apart from all other known class A GPCR structures. With AZD1283 bound, the highly conserved disulphide bridge in GPCRs between helix III and extracellular loop 2 is not observed and appears to be dynamic. Along with the details of the AZD1283-binding site, analysis of the extracellular interface reveals an adjacent ligand-binding region and suggests that both pockets could be required for dinucleotide binding. The structure provides essential insights for the development of improved P2Y12R ligands and allosteric modulators as drug candidates.

Molecular control of δ-opioid receptor signalling.

Opioids represent widely prescribed and abused medications, although their signal transduction mechanisms are not well understood. Here we present the 1.8 Å high-resolution crystal structure of the human δ-opioid receptor (δ-OR), revealing the presence and fundamental role of a sodium ion in mediating allosteric control of receptor functional selectivity and constitutive activity. The distinctive δ-OR sodium ion site architecture is centrally located in a polar interaction network in the seven-transmembrane bundle core, with the sodium ion stabilizing a reduced agonist affinity state, and thereby modulating signal transduction. Site-directed mutagenesis and functional studies reveal that changing the allosteric sodium site residue Asn 131 to an alanine or a valine augments constitutive ß-arrestin-mediated signalling. Asp95Ala, Asn310Ala and Asn314Ala mutations transform classical δ-opioid antagonists such as naltrindole into potent ß-arrestin-biased agonists. The data establish the molecular basis for allosteric sodium ion control in opioid signalling, revealing that sodium-coordinating residues act as 'efficacy switches' at a prototypic G-protein-coupled receptor.

Structure of the CCR5 chemokine receptor-HIV entry inhibitor maraviroc complex.

The CCR5 chemokine receptor acts as a co-receptor for HIV-1 viral entry. Here we report the 2.7 angstrom-resolution crystal structure of human CCR5 bound to the marketed HIV drug maraviroc. The structure reveals a ligand-binding site that is distinct from the proposed major recognition sites for chemokines and the viral glycoprotein gp120, providing insights into the mechanism of allosteric inhibition of chemokine signaling and viral entry. A comparison between CCR5 and CXCR4 crystal structures, along with models of co-receptor-gp120-V3 complexes, suggests that different charge distributions and steric hindrances caused by residue substitutions may be major determinants of HIV-1 co-receptor selectivity. These high-resolution insights into CCR5 can enable structure-based drug discovery for the treatment of HIV-1 infection.

A novel approach to quantify G-protein-coupled receptor dimerization equilibrium using bioluminescence resonance energy transfer.

Along with other resonance energy transfer techniques, bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) has emerged as an important method for demonstrating protein-protein interactions in cells. In the field of G-protein-coupled receptors, including chemokine receptors, BRET has been widely used to investigate homo- and heterodimerization, a feature of their interactions that is emerging as integral to function and regulation. While demonstrating the existence of dimers for a given receptor proved to be fairly straightforward, quantitative comparisons of different receptors or mutants are nontrivial because of inevitable variations in the expression of receptor constructs. The uncontrollable parameters of the cellular expression machinery make amounts of transfected DNA extremely poor predictors for the expression levels of BRET donor and acceptor receptor constructs, even in relative terms. In this chapter, we show that properly accounting for receptor expression levels is critical for quantitative interpretation of BRET data. We also provide a comprehensive account of expected responses in all types of BRET experiments and propose a framework for uniform and accurate quantitative treatment of these responses. The framework allows analysis of both homodimer and heterodimer BRET data. The important caveats and obstacles for quantitative treatment are outlined, and the utility of the approach is illustrated by its application to the homodimerization of wild-type (WT) and mutant forms of the chemokine receptor CXCR4.

Structural characterization of the mechanism through which human glutamic acid decarboxylase auto-activates.

Imbalances in GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) homoeostasis underlie psychiatric and movement disorders. The ability of the 65 kDa isoform of GAD (glutamic acid decarboxylase), GAD65, to control synaptic GABA levels is influenced through its capacity to auto-inactivate. In contrast, the GAD67 isoform is constitutively active. Previous structural insights suggest that flexibility in the GAD65 catalytic loop drives enzyme inactivation. To test this idea, we constructed a panel of GAD65/67 chimaeras and compared the ability of these molecules to auto-inactivate. Together, our data reveal the important finding that the C-terminal domain of GAD plays a key role in controlling GAD65 auto-inactivation. In support of these findings, we determined the X-ray crystal structure of a GAD65/67 chimaera that reveals that the conformation of the catalytic loop is intimately linked to the C-terminal domain.

Structures of the CXCR4 chemokine GPCR with small-molecule and cyclic peptide antagonists.

Chemokine receptors are critical regulators of cell migration in the context of immune surveillance, inflammation, and development. The G protein-coupled chemokine receptor CXCR4 is specifically implicated in cancer metastasis and HIV-1 infection. Here we report five independent crystal structures of CXCR4 bound to an antagonist small molecule IT1t and a cyclic peptide CVX15 at 2.5 to 3.2 angstrom resolution. All structures reveal a consistent homodimer with an interface including helices V and VI that may be involved in regulating signaling. The location and shape of the ligand-binding sites differ from other G protein-coupled receptors and are closer to the extracellular surface. These structures provide new clues about the interactions between CXCR4 and its natural ligand CXCL12, and with the HIV-1 glycoprotein gp120.

Conserved binding mode of human beta2 adrenergic receptor inverse agonists and antagonist revealed by X-ray crystallography.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent a large fraction of current pharmaceutical targets, and of the GPCRs, the beta(2) adrenergic receptor (beta(2)AR) is one of the most extensively studied. Previously, the X-ray crystal structure of beta(2)AR has been determined in complex with two partial inverse agonists, but the global impact of additional ligands on the structure or local impacts on the binding site are not well-understood. To assess the extent of such ligand-induced conformational differences, we determined the crystal structures of a previously described engineered beta(2)AR construct in complex with two inverse agonists: ICI 118,551 (2.8 A), a recently described compound (2.8 A) (Kolb et al, 2009), and the antagonist alprenolol (3.1 A). The structures show the same overall fold observed for the previous beta(2)AR structures and demonstrate that the ligand binding site can accommodate compounds of different chemical and pharmacological properties with only minor local structural rearrangements. All three compounds contain a hydroxy-amine motif that establishes a conserved hydrogen bond network with the receptor and chemically diverse aromatic moieties that form distinct interactions with beta(2)AR. Furthermore, receptor ligand cross-docking experiments revealed that a single beta(2)AR complex can be suitable for docking of a range of antagonists and inverse agonists but also indicate that additional ligand-receptor structures may be useful to further improve performance for in-silico docking or lead-optimization in drug design.

The X-ray crystal structure of Escherichia coli succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase; structural insights into NADP+/enzyme interactions.

BACKGROUND: In mammals succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (SSADH) plays an essential role in the metabolism of the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) to succinic acid (SA). Deficiency of SSADH in humans results in elevated levels of GABA and gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), which leads to psychomotor retardation, muscular hypotonia, non-progressive ataxia and seizures. In Escherichia coli, two genetically distinct forms of SSADHs had been described that are essential for preventing accumulation of toxic levels of succinic semialdehyde (SSA) in cells. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Here we structurally characterise SSADH encoded by the E coli gabD gene by X-ray crystallographic studies and compare these data with the structure of human SSADH. In the E. coli SSADH structure, electron density for the complete NADP+ cofactor in the binding sites is clearly evident; these data in particular revealing how the nicotinamide ring of the cofactor is positioned in each active site. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our structural data suggest that a deletion of three amino acids in E. coli SSADH permits this enzyme to use NADP+, whereas in contrast the human enzyme utilises NAD+. Furthermore, the structure of E. coli SSADH gives additional insight into human mutations that result in disease.

Structural biology of the GAD autoantigen.

For the past twenty years the type 1 diabetes autoantigen glutamic acid decarboxylase (65 kDa isoform; GAD65) has become a prototypic autoantigen, yielding a wealth of immunological and clinical insights. However for most of that period, much of the data could not be placed in a structural context, and relied upon modelling 'guess-work'. The high-resolution crystal structure of GAD65, as well as that of its isoform GAD67, was determined in 2007, providing many insights into the molecular determinants of antigenicity, as well as an atomic positioning of the epitope-mapping data. Despite the two isoforms having the same fold and high sequence identity, it is intriguing that only the 65 kDa isoform functions as an autoantigen. The structures shed much light on this question, revealing striking differences in structure and mobility at the C-terminal domain of the isoforms, which agreed with remarkable accuracy with epitope-mapping data. Furthermore the structures provided an explanation of why two enzymes are required to catalyse the same reaction in mammals, and how this might be linked to their contrasting antigenicities. This review thus focuses on how the GAD system represents a unique testbed for understanding the relationships between molecular structure, function and antigenicity.

Structural determinants of GAD antigenicity.

Our aim was to ascertain structural determinants of autoantigenicity based on the model of the diabetes autoantigen glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 kDa isoform (GAD65) in comparison with that of the non-autoantigenic isoform GAD67. This difference exists despite the two isoforms having the same fold and high sequence identity. Autoantibodies to GAD65 precede the development of type 1 diabetes and are clinical markers of this and certain neural autoimmune diseases. To date, epitope mapping has been based on particular amino acid differences between the two isoforms, and there is no explanation as to why autoantibodies that react with GAD65 only infrequently cross-react with GAD67. To characterize each isoform of the enzyme and gain insights into their contrasting autoantigenic properties, we have used the recently determined crystal structures of GAD65 and GAD67 to compare their structure, hydrophobicity, electrostatics, flexibility and physiochemical properties. The results revealed striking differences which appear almost exclusively at the C-terminal domain of the isoforms. Whereas GAD65 displayed a highly charged and flexible C-terminal domain containing numerous patches of high electrostatic and solvation energies, these characteristics were absent in the GAD67 molecule. Additionally, analysis indicated potential N-terminal and PLP domain binding sites surrounding the C-terminal domain of GAD65, a major region of autoantigenic activity, but not of GAD67. These features agree with good accuracy with published epitope-mapping data. Our analysis suggests that the high flexibility and charge of GAD65 in the C-terminal domain is coupled with the mobility of its catalytic loop, a property that is absolutely required for its enzymatic function. Thus, the structural features that distinguish GAD65 from GAD67 as a B cell autoantigen are related to functional requirements for its enzymatic mechanism. This could well apply to the various other enzyme autoantigens and, if so, these features could be used as the basis of future predictive strategies.

GAD65 as a prototypic autoantigen.

The repertoire of known autoantigens is limited to a very small proportion of all human proteins, and the reason why only some proteins become autoantigens is unclear, but is likely associated with structural features. The 65kDa isoform of the enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65) is a major autoantigen in type I diabetes, and in various neurological diseases, whereas the closely related isoform, GAD67, is rarely antigenic. Conformational epitopes of GAD65 have been mapped using human monoclonal antibodies to GAD65 and GAD mutated by GAD65/67 sequence exchanges or point mutations, but these studies have been limited by a lack of structural information. The recent publication of crystal structures for the two isoforms has shown that the N-, C- and middle domains that have been identified previously as likely epitope regions are closely associated within the GAD dimer. Two major epitope regions, ctc1 and ctc2, have been identified in the C-terminal domain of GAD65, that encompass N- and C-terminal residues, and middle and C-terminal residues respectively. These regions are highly flexible compared with the equivalent regions in GAD67, and T cell epitopes have been localized to the same surface region of GAD65. Comparative analysis of these two structurally similar isoforms, GAD65 and GAD67, only one of which is autoantigenic should provide new insights into the provocations to autoimmunity.

COOH-terminal clustering of autoantibody and T-cell determinants on the structure of GAD65 provide insights into the molecular basis of autoreactivity.

OBJECTIVE: To gain structural insights into the autoantigenic properties of GAD65 in type 1 diabetes, we analyzed experimental epitope mapping data in the context of the recently determined crystal structures of GAD65 and GAD67, to allow "molecular positioning" of epitope sites for B- and T-cell reactivity. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Data were assembled from analysis of reported effects of mutagenesis of GAD65 on its reactivity with a panel of 11 human monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), supplemented by use of recombinant Fab to cross-inhibit reactivity with GAD65 by radioimmunoprecipitation of the same mAbs. RESULTS: The COOH-terminal region on GAD65 was the major autoantigenic site. B-cell epitopes were distributed within two separate clusters around different faces of the COOH-terminal domain. Inclusion of epitope sites in the pyridoxal phosphate-and NH(2)-terminal domains was attributed to the juxtaposition of all three domains in the crystal structure. Epitope preferences of different mAbs to GAD65 aligned with different clinical expressions of type 1 diabetes. Epitopes for four of five known reactive T-cell sequences restricted by HLA DRB1*0401 were aligned to solvent-exposed regions of the GAD65 structure and colocalized within the two B-cell epitope clusters. The continuous COOH-terminal epitope region of GAD65 was structurally highly flexible and therefore differed markedly from the equivalent region of GAD67. CONCLUSIONS: Structural features could explain the differing antigenicity, and perhaps immunogenicity, of GAD65 versus GAD67. The proximity of B- and T-cell epitopes within the GAD65 structure suggests that antigen-antibody complexes may influence antigen processing by accessory cells and thereby T-cell reactivity.

GABA production by glutamic acid decarboxylase is regulated by a dynamic catalytic loop.

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is synthesized by two isoforms of the pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-dependent enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65 and GAD67). GAD67 is constitutively active and is responsible for basal GABA production. In contrast, GAD65, an autoantigen in type I diabetes, is transiently activated in response to the demand for extra GABA in neurotransmission, and cycles between an active holo form and an inactive apo form. We have determined the crystal structures of N-terminal truncations of both GAD isoforms. The structure of GAD67 shows a tethered loop covering the active site, providing a catalytic environment that sustains GABA production. In contrast, the same catalytic loop is inherently mobile in GAD65. Kinetic studies suggest that mobility in the catalytic loop promotes a side reaction that results in cofactor release and GAD65 autoinactivation. These data reveal the molecular basis for regulation of GABA homeostasis.

Molecular characterization of a disease associated conformational epitope on GAD65 recognised by a human monoclonal antibody b96.11.

Autoantibodies to the 65kDa isoform of glutamate decarboxylase (GAD65) are associated with type I diabetes and recognise highly conformational epitope(s) that remain to be defined. The human recombinant Fab from mAb b96.11 inhibits binding of most GAD65 antibody positive sera from patients and its epitope has previously been localized to the middle region of GAD65. Recent studies indicate that b96.11 antibody specificity predicts the risk of developing type 1 diabetes in prediabetic individuals. We describe the use homology modelling, protein-protein docking simulations and biopanning of random peptide phage displayed libraries with b96.11 to predict contact amino acids on the interface of GAD65/Fab b96.11 complex. Further analysis by in vitro mutagenesis of GAD65 followed by radioimmunoprecipitation refined the amino acids contributing to the b96.11 epitope. Our studies show an interface characterized by a protruding antibody-combining site centered on the long heavy chain CDR3 loop of Fab b96.11 establishing interactions with the critical residue Phe(344) in the core of the epitope on GAD65, surrounded by charged sites within (375)RK(376) and (305)DER(307). The epitope requires residues from both middle and the C-terminal domains, and is the first precise definition of an epitope on GAD65. The nature of the b96.11 epitope leads to considerations of potential structural variations for differences in antigenicity between the isoforms GAD65 and GAD67. The study shows the utility of using a combination of in silico techniques and experimental data for molecular characterization and localization of conformational epitopes for which crystal structures are lacking.