Temporal discounting across adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

A number of developmental theories have been proposed that make differential predictions about the links between age and temporal discounting, or the devaluation of future rewards. Most empirical studies examining adult age differences in temporal discounting have relied on economic intertemporal choice tasks, which pit choosing a smaller, sooner monetary reward against choosing a larger, later one. Although initial studies using these tasks suggested older adults discount less than younger adults, follow-up studies provided heterogeneous, and thus inconclusive, results. Using an open science approach, we test the replicability of adult age differences in temporal discounting by conducting a preregistered systematic literature search and meta-analysis of adult age differences in intertemporal choice tasks. Across 37 cross-sectional studies (Total N = 104,737), a planned meta-analysis found no sizeable relation between age and temporal discounting, r = -0.068, 95% CI [-0.170, 0.035]. We also found little evidence of publication bias or p-hacking. Exploratory analyses of moderators found no effect of research design (e.g., extreme-group vs. continuous age), incentives (hypothetical vs. real rewards), duration of delay (e.g., days, weeks, months, or years), or quantification of discounting behavior (e.g., proportion of immediate choices vs. parameters from computational modeling). Additional analyses of 12 participant-level data sets found little support for a nonlinear relation between age and temporal discounting across adulthood. Overall, the results suggest that younger, middle-aged, and older adults show similar preferences for smaller, sooner over larger, later rewards. We provide recommendations for future empirical work on temporal discounting across the adult life span. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Examining perceptions about IQOS heated tobacco product: consumer studies in Japan and Switzerland.

OBJECTIVE: To examine consumer perceptions, attitudes and behaviours regarding the heated tobacco product, IQOS, as well as to document the product's marketing strategies to determine its potential for appealing to youth and young adults. METHOD: Truth Initiative, in collaboration with Flamingo, collected qualitative data via: (1) expert interviews, (2) semiotic analysis of IQOS packing and marketing materials, and (3) 12 focus groups with adults in Switzerland (ages 19-44 years; June 6-9, 2016) and Japan (ages 20-39 years; June 22-24, 2016) (n=68 for both groups). RESULTS: Expert interviews and IQOS packing and marketing analyses revealed the product is being marketed as a clean, chic and pure product, which resonated very well in Japan given the strong cultural values of order, cleanliness, quality and respect for others. Focus groups results indicated Japanese IQOS users used the product for socialising with non-smokers. Focus group participants in both Japan and Switzerland reported lower levels of satisfaction with the product relative to combustible cigarettes, although many found the product packaging to be appealing. While participants identified several benefits and barriers related to IQOS, few reported any potential health benefits of use compared with combustible tobacco products. CONCLUSION: IQOS was marketed as a sophisticated, high tech and aspirational product. Because youth and young adults are more interested in such product positioning, this approach raises some concern about youth appeal. This research shows cultural factors appeared to affect the appeal of this messaging, indicating that prevalence and uptake data will likely not be similar from country to country.