Visual Attention and Emotion Analysis Based on Qualitative Assessment and Eyetracking Metrics-The Perception of a Video Game Trailer.

Video game trailers are very useful tools for attracting potential players. This research focuses on analyzing the emotions that arise while viewing video game trailers and the link between these emotions and storytelling and visual attention. The methodology consisted of a three-step task test with potential users: the first step was to identify the perception of indie games; the second step was to use the eyetracking device (gaze plot, heat map, and fixation points) and link them to fixation points (attention), viewing patterns, and non-visible areas; the third step was to interview users to understand impressions and questionnaires of emotions related to the trailer's storytelling and expectations. The results show an effective assessment of visual attention together with visualization patterns, non-visible areas that may affect game expectations, fixation points linked to very specific emotions, and perceived narratives based on the gaze plot. The innovation in the mixed methodological approach has made it possible to obtain relevant data regarding the link between the emotions perceived by the user and the areas of attention collected with the device. The proposed methodology enables developers to understand the strengths and weaknesses of the information being conveyed so that they can tailor the trailer to the expectations of potential players.

Literacy Level and Executive Control in Healthy Older Peruvian Adults.

Introduction: Early-life educational experiences are associated with cognitive performance in aging. Early literacy seems to improve executive control mechanisms, however, it is not clear whether early education would still be an advantage in countries like Peru, where access to and quality of education is highly variable. Aim: Our objective was to analyze the association of literacy level with executive control factors. Method: We evaluated 93 healthy older adults with a clinical protocol that included the Mini-Mental State Examination, the Geriatric Depression Scale and Global Dementia Staging. We also used a neuropsychological executive function battery which included the Trail-Making Test parts A and B, the Stroop Test, phonological and semantic verbal fluency tasks, Forward and Backward Digits, Numbers and Letters of the Wechsler Scale, and the Go/No-Go task. We used a principal component analysis for the dimensional reduction of the variables. To measure the level of literacy we used the word accentuation test (WAT). Results: We observed statistically significant correlations between the principal components (PCs) of working memory, cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control with the WAT scores. Furthermore, we observed that processing speed and WAT predict the scores on PCs factors better than years of education and age. Conclusions: Literacy level correlates more closely with better cognitive performance than years of education and thus, might improve executive control factors that could compensate and protect against brain changes in cognitive decline and dementia.

Qualitative Assessment of Effective Gamification Design Processes Using Motivators to Identify Game Mechanics.

This research focuses on the study and qualitative assessment of the relationships between motivators and game mechanics per the ratings of expert gamification consultants. By taking this approach, it is intended that during the design phase of a gamified system, decisions can be made about the design of the system based on the motivators of each of the profiles. These motivators can be determined from the information provided by the potential players themselves. The research presented starts from a previous analysis in which, based on the three most used gamification frameworks and through a card sorting technique that allows the user to organize and classify the content, a set of mechanics are determined. In the present study, each of the mechanics is analyzed, and a more precise motive is decided. As a result, a higher level of personalization is achieved and, consequently, approximates a higher level of gamification effectiveness. The main conclusions are implemented in the development of the Game4City 3.0 project, which addresses gamified and interactive strategies to visualize urban environments in 3D at an educational and social level.

Role of Executive Functions in the Conversion from Mild Cognitive Impairment to Dementia.

BACKGROUND: Recent research pointed to executive dysfunction as a potential early predictor of the progression of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) to dementia in Alzheimer's clinical syndrome (ACS). Such cognitive impairments account for functional impairments in instrumental activities of daily living (IADL). OBJECTIVE: The present study analyzes the contributions of executive functions to predict MCI-dementia progression in ACS. METHODS: We assessed 145 participants, 51 cognitively unimpaired and 94 MCI. The latter were divided using the traditional, memory-based MCI classification (single domain amnestic, multidomain amnestic, and non-amnestic). Eight tests assessing executive functions were administered at baseline and at 1-year follow-up, together with cognitive screening tools and IADL measures. MCI patients were reclassified based on the outcomes from a K-mean cluster analysis which identified three groups. A simple lineal regression model was used to examine whether the classification based on executive functioning could more accurately predict progression to dementia a year later. RESULTS: Clusters based on executive function deficits explained a significant proportion of the variance linked to MCI-dementia conversion, even after controlling for the severity of MCI at baseline (F(1, 68) = 116.25, p = 0.000, R2 = 0.63). Classical memory-based MCI classification failed to predict such a conversion (F(1, 68) = 5.09, p = 0.955, R2 = 0.07). Switching, categories generation, and planning were the executive functions that best distinguished between MCI converters and stable. CONCLUSION: MCI with a dysexecutive phenotype significantly predicts conversion to dementia in ACS a year later. Switching abilities and verbal fluency (categories) must be evaluated in MCI patients to assess risk of future dementia.

Validation of the Spanish Version of Newcastle Stroke-Specific Quality of Life Measure (NEWSQOL).

BACKGROUND: Stroke causes a wide variety of clinical manifestations that may have a negative impact on quality of life. Therefore, it is very important to use specific instruments for measuring quality of life in individuals who suffered a stroke. The aim of this study was to develop a psychometrically validated Spanish version of the Newcastle stroke-specific quality of life measure (NEWSQOL). METHODS: A psychometric validation of the Spanish version of the NEWSQOL questionnaire was carried out in 159 patients. The reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient and Cronbach's alpha coefficient), validity (factorial analysis and Spearman's coefficient), feasibility (response rate), and the ceiling and floor effects were calculated. RESULTS: Internal consistency showed that Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.93. The test-retest reliability was high or excellent for all domains (range 0.71-0.97 p < 0.001). The response rate of the questionnaire was 100% and the average administration time was 20.5 (±7.2) min. No ceiling effect was detected and two domains (pain and vision) may have a significant potential for floor effect. Construct validity showed that all the variables are important enough to keep them all in the questionnaire. Concerning convergent construct validity, a high correlation was found with the Nottingham Health Profile, the Barthel Index, and the Modified Rankin Scale. CONCLUSION: The Spanish version of the NEWSQOL questionnaire is reliable, valid, and feasible to evaluate quality of life in the Spanish population.

Refining memory assessment of elderly people with cognitive impairment: Insights from the short-term memory binding test.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) affects temporary memory for bound features more remarkably than for individual features. Such selective impairments manifest from presymptomatic through dementia stages via titration procedures. A recent study suggested that without titration and with high memory load the binding selectivity may disappear in people at risk of AD such as those with Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI). We compared data from two studies on temporary binding which assessed people with MCI and controls using different memory loads (2 or 3 items). Selective binding impairments were found in MCI, but relative to controls, such selectivity was contingent upon memory load (i.e., present with 2 items). Further analysis with MCI people who tested positive to neuroimaging biomarkers (i.e., hippocampal atrophy) confirmed that this specific binding impairments are a feature of prodromal AD. The temporary binding task has been recently suggested by consensus papers as a potential screening tool for AD. The results presented here inform on task properties that can maximize the reliability of this new assessment tool for the detection of memory impairments in prodromal cases of AD.

Intrathecal cell therapy with autologous stromal cells increases cerebral glucose metabolism and can offer a new approach to the treatment of Alzheimer's type dementia.

BACKGROUND AIMS: After recent observations that intrathecal administration of autologous bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) increases cerebral metabolism in patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), we examined this type of cell therapy in Alzheimer's type dementia. METHODS: Three patients with clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease received every 3 months 100million autologous MSCs by intrathecal route, until a total dose of 300million. RESULTS: During cell therapy the patients showed arrest in neurological deterioration and two of them manifested clear improvement of previous symptoms. A global increase in cerebral glucose metabolism, measured using 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (18F-FDG-PET), was observed after every administration of cell therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Our present findings suggest that intrathecal administrations of autologous MSCs can be a new strategy for the treatment of Alzheimer's dementia.

La cognición social como variable rasgo en esquizofrenia y su relación con el funcionamiento psicosocial / No disponible

Objetivo: Analizar si la cognición social se constituye como rasgo endofenotípico de la esquizofrenia, apareciendo en hermanos de personas diagnosticadas y permaneciendo estable a lo largo del curso del trastorno. Estudiar la relación entre déficits en cognición social y el funcionamiento psicosocial. Método: La muestra estuvo compuesta por pacientes diagnosticados de esquizofrenia paranoide (29), hermanos de los mismos (14) y controles (12). Se comparó el rendimiento de los tres grupos en estilo atribucional, percepción social, y reconocimiento emocional (Escala de Cognición Social), teoría de la mente (el test de insinuaciones y el Eyes test). Al grupo de pacientes además, se evaluó el funcionamiento psicosocial (escala HoNOS). Resultados: Los pacientes puntuaron significativamente peor que controles en todas las escalas de cognición social, salvo estilo atribucional. Los hermanos mostraron rendimientos peores que los participantes controles en todas las escalas de cognición social salvo percepción social y test de insinuaciones. Los pacientes puntuaron peor que los hermanos en percepción social y teoría de la mente; en el resto de variables hermanos y pacientes no mostraron diferencias significativas. No se encontró ninguna correlación significativa entre tiempo desde el diagnóstico y cognición social. Tampoco se encuentra correlación entre ninguna variable de cognición social y el funcionamiento psicosocial en el grupo de personas con esquizofrenia. Conclusión: Los resultados sitúan a los hermanos con déficit moderado en cognición social, más cercano al de pacientes que al de población general, apoyando la hipótesis de la cognición social como un rasgo que aparece en estados de alto riesgo. No se encuentra relación entre déficits en cognición social y tiempo de evolución del trastorno, de acuerdo con la concepción de rasgo estable en el tiempo. Ambos hallazgos apoyan la conceptualización de la cognición social como rasgo endofenotípico de la esquizofrenia, aunque se requieren futuras investigaciones que amplíen la muestra. No se observa relación entre funcionamiento psicosocial y cognición social, esto puede deberse al tamaño de la muestra o al tipo de instrumento utilizado para medir el funcionamiento psicosocial

Objective: Analyzing whether social cognition is constituted as endophenotypic feature of schizophrenia, appearing in siblings of people diagnosed and remaining stable over the course of the disorder. Study the relationship between deficits in social cognition and psychosocial functioning. Method: The sample consisted of patients diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia (29), siblings (14) and controls (12). The performance of the three groups in attributional style, social perception, and emotional recognition (Social Cognition Scale), theory of mind (the test of innuendo and Eyes test) was compared. In addition, the group of patients was evaluated in their psychosocial functioning (HoNOS scale). Results: Patients scored significantly worse than controls at all scales of social cognition, except attributional style. The siblings showed worse performance than controls in all scales of social cognition except social perception and hinting task. The patients scored worse than they first degree relatives in social perception and theory of mind, in other variables, siblings and patients showed no significant differences. No significant correlation was found between time since diagnosis and social cognition. Neither correlation is found between any variable social cognition and psychosocial functioning in the group of people with schizophrenia. Conclusion: The results show the brothers with moderate deficit in social cognition, closer to patients than to general population, supporting the hypothesis of social cognition as a feature appearing in high-risk states. It is not found a significant relationship between deficits in social cognition and time course of the disease, according to the conception of stable trait over time. Both findings support the conceptualization of social cognition as endophenotypic feature of schizophrenia, although further research to expand the sample is required. No significant relationship between psychosocial functioning and schizophrenia is observed, it could be because of the sample size or the type of instrument used to measure psychosocial functioning

Traducción al castellano y análisis preliminar de las propiedades psicométricas del cuestionario Newcastle Stroke-Specific Quality of Life Measure (NEWSQOL) para valorar la calidad de vida en pacientes postictus / Translation into Spanish and a preliminary analysis of the psychometric properties of the Newcastle Stroke-Specific Quality of Life Measure (NEWSQOL) questionnaire for rating the quality of life among post-stroke patients

Introducción. El Newcastle Stroke-Specific Quality of Life Measure (NEWSQOL) es uno de los pocos cuestionarios específicos para valorar la calidad de vida en pacientes que han sufrido ictus isquémico u hemorrágico. Objetivo. Traducir y adaptar dicho cuestionario al castellano y evaluar su fiabilidad y aceptabilidad. Pacientes y métodos. Se tradujo al castellano la versión original del cuestionario NEWSQOL, traducción que fue consensuada por un equipo de expertos, y a partir de la cual se hizo una retrotraducción al inglés que se envió a la autora, quien mostró su conformidad. Posteriormente esa versión se administró a un grupo de pacientes para valorar su fiabilidad, aceptabilidad, efecto suelo y efecto techo. Resultados. El proceso de adaptación lingüística permitió obtener la equivalencia semántica, conceptual y de contenido de la versión española de NEWSQOL. Los resultados obtenidos en el análisis preliminar reflejan una excelente aceptabilidad, un índice de consistencia interna de 0,9 para la totalidad del cuestionario y una concordancia test-retest buena o excelente para todos los dominios. No se detectó efecto techo, pero sí efecto suelo para los dominios de visión y cognición. Conclusión. La versión española del cuestionario NEWSQOL es fiable para valorar la calidad de vida en pacientes postictus, además de aceptarse bien. Es necesario utilizar el cuestionario en muestras más amplias para evaluar su validez y sensibilidad (AU)

Introduction. The Newcastle Stroke-Specific Quality of Life Measure (NEWSQOL) is one of the few specific questionnaires for evaluating the quality of life among patients who have suffered an ischaemic or haemorrhagic stroke. Aims. To translate and adapt this questionnaire into Spanish and to evaluate its reliability and acceptability. Patients and methods. The original version of the NEWSQOL questionnaire was translated into Spanish. The translation was agreed upon by a team of experts, and was then back-translated into English and sent to the author, who gave her approval of the rendering. This version was later administered to a group of patients in order to evaluate its reliability, acceptability, floor effect and ceiling effect. Results. The process of linguistic adaptation allowed semantic, conceptual and content equivalence to be achieved in the Spanish version of the NEWSQOL. The results obtained in the preliminary analysis show excellent acceptability, an internal consistency index of 0.9 for the whole questionnaire and a good or excellent test-retest agreement for all the domains. No ceiling effect was detected, but a floor effect was observed in the case of the vision and cognition domains. Conclusion. The Spanish version of the NEWSQOL questionnaire is reliable for evaluating the quality of life in post-stroke patients, as well as being well accepted. The questionnaire must be used in more broader samples in order to evaluate its validity and sensitivity (AU)

Cognitive impairments in patients with first episode psychosis: The relationship between neurophysiological and neuropsychological assessments.

Cognitive deficits in schizophrenia have been widely reported. Neurophysiological and neuropsychological assessments have been conducted to study these impairments. Event-related potentials (ERPs) are relevant markers of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia, and reductions in specific ERP components have been found. The MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB) was developed to obtain a consensus battery for the assessment of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Here, we aimed to study modulations of several ERP components in first episode psychosis (FEP). We also examined neuropsychological deficits using the MCCB, and correlations between ERP and MCCB impairments. Thirty-eight FEP patients were compared to thirty-eight healthy controls. The following ERP components were examined: P1, N1, MMN, P2, early-P3 and late-P3. We used an auditory three-stimulus oddball paradigm, with standard (60%), target (20%) and distractor (20%) stimuli. FEP patients showed significantly lower amplitudes of P2, early-P3 and late-P3 components. FEP patients also showed significant deficits in all the MCCB cognitive domains. Finally, correlational analyses found strong associations between amplitudes of P2, early-P3 and late-P3 components and MCCB tests for attention and speed of processing. These findings indicate that deficits in late auditory ERP components are present in FEP, whereas early components are preserved. These reductions in late ERP components were related to attentional deficits in FEP as assessed by MCCB. These findings indicate that MCCB is a valid battery for studying cognitive impairments in the initial stages of schizophrenia, and highlight the utility of converging neurophysiological and neuropsychological measures to examine attentional impairments in schizophrenia.

Sensory Gating Deficits in First-Episode Psychosis: Evidence From Neurophysiology, Psychophysiology, and Neuropsychology.

Sensory gating deficits are commonly found in patients with schizophrenia. However, there is still scarce research on this issue. Thirty-eight patients with first-episode psychosis (FEP) were compared to thirty-eight controls. A condition-test paradigm of event-related potentials (ERP), prepulse inhibition (PPI), and some specific tasks of the MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB) were used (i.e., TMT, BACS-SC, and Fluency for processing speed and CPT-IP for attention and vigilance). The ERP components measured were P50, N1, and P2. The PPI intervals examined were 30, 60, and 120 msec. Regarding the MCCB, processing speed and attention/vigilance cognitive domains were selected. FEP patients showed significant deficits in N1 and P2 components, at 30 and 60 PPI levels and in all the MCCB subtests selected. We obtained significant relationships in N1 with PPI-60, and with one MCCB subtest for processing speed. In addition, this same subtest showed significant association with P2. Therefore, sensory gating functioning is widely impaired since the very early stages of schizophrenia.

A Comparison Study of Cognitive and Neuropsychiatric Features of Essential Tremor and Parkinson's Disease.

BACKGROUND: Essential tremor (ET) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are two of the most common movement disorders. Leaving aside their motor features, these two conditions share several non-motor features, including cognitive dysfunction and personality changes. However, there are few data comparing the cognitive and personality profiles of ET with PD. Here we compare the cognitive and personality profiles of the two diseases. METHODS: Thirty-two consecutive non-demented ET patients (13 females and 19 males) (67.7±9.8 years), 32 non-demented PD patients (13 females and 19 males) (67.7±9.5 years), and 32 healthy matched controls (14 females and 18 males) (67.9±10.1 years) underwent a neuropsychological test battery, including a global cognitive assessment and tests of attention, executive function, memory, language, and visuospatial function, as well as the Personality Assessment Inventory. Multivariable linear regression analyses were performed, adjusted for age, sex, years of education, medications that potentially affect cognitive function, number of medications, and the 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale Total Score. RESULTS: Neuropsychological scores were similar in PD and ET patients, but patients with disease performed more poorly than control subjects in cognitive tasks such as attention, executive function, memory, and naming. DISCUSSION: ET and PD exhibited similar deficits in specific aspects of neuropsychological functioning, particularly those thought to rely on the integrity of the prefrontal cortex, and this suggests involvement of frontocerebellar circuits. These findings further challenge the traditional view of ET as a benign and monosymptomatic disorder.

Cannabis abuse effects on prepulse inhibition in patients with first episode psychosis in schizophrenia.

Deficits in prepulse inhibition (PPI) and cannabis abuse are consistently found in schizophrenia. The authors studied PPI deficits in first episode psychosis (FEP) with schizophrenia and cannabis abuse influence. Thirty-five patients with FEP and 22 control subjects were examined. Patients were divided into cannabis use disorder (CUD) (N=21) and non-CUD (N=14). Startle measures were as follows: PPI at 30, 60, and 120 msec. Patients with CUD and patients without CUD showed lower PPI at 30 msec than control subjects. At 60 msec, patients with CUD obtained higher %PPI than patients without CUD, and patients without CUD obtained lower levels than control subjects. These findings show that cannabis abuse may improve PPI in patients with FEP at some levels.

[Level of reading skills as a measure of cognitive reserve in elderly adults]. / Nivel de lectura como medida de reserva cognitiva en adultos mayores.

INTRODUCTION: Cognitive reserve modulates between neurodegenerative processes and the clinical manifestations of cognitive impairment and dementia. This construct is associated with the capacity to optimise the execution of tasks by recruiting neuronal networks and with the use of alternative cognitive strategies that would be mediated by formal educational processes. AIM: To analyse the level of reading skills as a measure of cognitive reserve and as a reliable predictor of performance in tests for evaluating different cognitive domains. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The sample consisted of 87 healthy subjects who were asked to complete the Word Naming test as an indicator of the level of reading skills; this allowed us to divide the sample into subjects with a low and a high level of reading ability. A broad neuropsychological battery was then applied. RESULTS: The subjects with a low level of reading skills displayed lower general cognitive performance, reduced processing speed and cognitive deficits. Furthermore, the level of reading skills is a better predictor of performance in executive functions and general cognitive performance than the variables age, years of schooling and education. CONCLUSIONS: The level of reading skills has shown itself to be a good measure of cognitive reserve and a reliable predictor of executive and cognitive functioning in ageing.

Nivel de lectura como medida de reserva cognitiva en adultos mayores / Level of reading skills as a measure of cognitive reserve in elderly adults

Introducción. La reserva cognitiva es un modulador entre los procesos neurodegenerativos y las manifestaciones clínicas de deterioro cognitivo y demencia. Este constructo se asocia a la capacidad de optimizar la ejecución de tareas a través del reclutamiento de redes neuronales y al uso de estrategias cognitivas alternativas que estarían mediadas por los procesos educativos formales. Objetivo. Analizar el nivel de lectura como medida de reserva cognitiva y como predictor fiable del rendimiento en pruebas de valoración de distintos dominios cognitivos. Sujetos y métodos. La muestra se compone de 87 sujetos sanos a quienes se aplicó el test de acentuación de palabras como indicador del nivel de lectura; esto permitió dividir la muestra en sujetos con nivel de lectura bajo y alto, a los cuales se administró una amplia batería neuropsicológica. Resultados. Los sujetos con nivel de lectura bajo muestran un rendimiento cognitivo general inferior, disminución en la velocidad de procesamiento y déficits ejecutivos; además, el nivel de lectura predice mejor el rendimiento en función ejecutiva y rendimiento cognitivo general que las variables edad, años de escolaridad e instrucción. Conclusiones. El nivel de lectura se muestra como una buena medida de reserva cognitiva y como un predictor fiable del funcionamiento ejecutivo y cognitivo en el envejecimiento (AU)

Introduction. Cognitive reserve modulates between neurodegenerative processes and the clinical manifestations of cognitive impairment and dementia. This construct is associated with the capacity to optimise the execution of tasks by recruiting neuronal networks and with the use of alternative cognitive strategies that would be mediated by formal educational processes. Aim. To analyse the level of reading skills as a measure of cognitive reserve and as a reliable predictor of performance in tests for evaluating different cognitive domains. Subjects and methods. The sample consisted of 87 healthy subjects who were asked to complete the Word Naming test as an indicator of the level of reading skills; this allowed us to divide the sample into subjects with a low and a high level of reading ability. A broad neuropsychological battery was then applied. Results. The subjects with a low level of reading skills displayed lower general cognitive performance, reduced processing speed and cognitive deficits. Furthermore, the level of reading skills is a better predictor of performance in executive functions and general cognitive performance than the variables age, years of schooling and education. Conclusions. The level of reading skills has shown itself to be a good measure of cognitive reserve and a reliable predictor of executive and cognitive functioning in ageing (AU)

Procesos de control ejecutivo en la enfermedad de Alzheimer / Executive control processes in Alzheimer’s disease

El control ejecutivo (CE) es un mecanismo complejo compuesto por distintos subprocesos y vinculado al funcionamiento del lóbulo frontal. En los últimos años se ha generado una gran cantidad de investigación sobre los déficit de control ejecutivo (CE) en pacientes con enfermedad de Alzheimer (EA). Este análisis resulta de gran interés porque, por una parte, estudios recientes han observado precisamente alteraciones en regiones frontales en estos pacientes, y por otra parte, porque sus manifestaciones clínicas y conductuales en el inicio de la enfermedad están relacionadas con la afectación del CE. En este artículo se revisa detalladamente la evidencia existente sobre la afectación de los subprocesos del CE al inicio de la EA, determinando si habría un deterioro generalizado o disociaciones entre los componentes, así como sus posibles implicaciones básicas y aplicadas (AU)

It has been recently proposed that executive control (EC) is composed by different subprocesses. In recent times, EC deficits in Alzheimer’s disease patients (AD) have been widely investigated. This analysis is very interesting because, on the one hand, recent studies have observed frontal lobe alterations on these demented patients, and on the other hand, Alzheimer’s disease clinical and behavioural manifestations could be explained by the involvement of EC. This paper discusses in detail the possible involvement of EC subprocesses at the beginning of AD, determining if there would be a widespread decline or dissociations between components and their basic and clinical implications (AU)

Relationship between measures of inhibitory processes in patients with schizophrenia: role of substance abuse disorders.

Disruption of prepulse inhibition of the startle response (PPI) has been widely identified in patients with schizophrenia, as well as impairment in many domains of cognitive functioning. However, there is some controversy regarding the relationship between PPI and the different neuropsychological tasks assessing inhibition. This controversy may be due to the influence of other variables, such as substance abuse. We aimed to determine whether differences in inhibition in schizophrenia subjects were related to their pattern of substance use and whether there was a correlation between the changes in each process. PPI and neuropsychological functioning were studied in three groups of subjects with schizophrenia (N=73): tobacco dependents (ToD; n=22), multiple substance abusers (MSUD; n=31) and non-substance abusers (non-SUD; n=20). All subjects were assessed using PPI and neuropsychological tests (Stroop and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test [WCST]). ToD showed better pre-attentive inhibitory function compared to the other two groups, and MSUD showed lower resistance to interference. Furthermore, significant correlations were found between PPI, Stroop, and WCST. Our data suggest that there is a relationship between the different tasks assessing inhibition in schizophrenia, being affected by substance abuse history. We also found differences in inhibition capacity depending on substance abuse in patients with schizophrenia.

Decline of executive processes affects identification of emotional facial expression in aging.

The current study examined the hypothesis that old people have a selective deficit in the identification of emotional facial expressions (EFEs) when the task conditions require the mechanism of the central executive. We have used a Dual Task (DT) paradigm to assess the role of visuo-spatial interference of working memory when processing emotional faces under two conditions: DT at encoding and DT at retrieval. Previous studies have revealed a loss of the ability to identify specific emotional facial expressions (EFEs) in old age. This has been consistently associated with a decline of the ability to coordinate the performance of two tasks concurrently. Working memory is usually tested using DT paradigms. Regarding to aging, there is evidence that with DT performance during encoding the costs are substantial. In contrast, the introduction of a secondary task after the primary task (i.e. at retrieval), had less detrimental effects on primary task performance in either younger or older adults. Our results demonstrate that aging is associated with higher DT costs when EFEs are identified concurrently with a visuo-spatial task. In contrast, there was not a significant age-related decline when the two tasks were presented sequentially. This suggests a deficit of the central executive rather than visuo-spatial memory deficits. The current data provide further support for the hypothesis that emotional processing is "top-down" controlled, and suggest that the deficits in emotional processing of old people depend, above all, on specific cognitive impairment.

[Types of semantic category and stimulus modality in procedural learning: implications for models of semantic memory]. / Tipos de categoría semántica y modalidad de los estímulos en el aprendizaje procedimental: implicaciones sobre los modelos de memoria semántica.

The present work attempts to determine whether procedural learning of a semantic categorisation task is influenced by the type of semantic category of the stimuli (biological and non-biological elements). It is also an attempt to determine the effect of the stimulus presentation modality on the categorisation task. A semantic categorisation task (4 series of 40 stimuli) was administered to 256 participants (128 classifying pictures, and 128 classifying words). Biological categories were responded to faster than non-biological ones although there were no significant differences between the interaction of the category type and the stimulus presentation modality. Reaction times progressively decreased with practice. However, the initial differences disappeared when subjects were trained. The way that current models account for these investigation findings is discussed. In addition, it is suggested that there is an attentional bias in favor of biological elements, which disappears when presumably less relevant elements become more relevant as a function of the task characteristics.

Tipos de categoría semántica y modalidad de los estímulos en el aprendizaje procedimental: implicaciones sobre los modelos de memoria semántica / Types of semantic category and stimulus modality in procedural learning: implications for models of semantic memory

El presente trabajo trata de estudiar si el aprendizaje procedimental de una tarea de categorización semántica puede verse influido por el tipo de categoría al que pertenezcan los estímulos empleados (biológicos o no biológicos). Por otro lado, se pretende describir si existe un efecto de la modalidad de presentación de los estímulos en dicha tarea. Se administró una tarea de categorización semántica (4 series de 40 estímulos) a 256 participantes (128 clasificaban dibujos y 128 palabras). Las categorías biológicas se responden con más rapidez que las categorías no biológicas, aunque no existen diferencias significativas en la interacción del tipo de categoría y la modalidad de presentación de los estímulos. Los tiempos de reacción van disminuyendo progresivamente con la práctica. Sin embargo, las diferencias iniciales desaparecen cuando los sujetos han entrenado. Se discute acerca de cómo los modelos actuales dan cuenta de los hallazgos de esta investigación. Se sugiere, además, que existe una tendencia atencional en los individuos a favor de los elementos biológicos que se atenúa cuando los estímulos presumiblemente menos relevantes para la supervivencia emergen como relevantes en función de lo que se demanda en la tarea (AU)

The present work attempts to determine whether procedural learning of a semantic categorisation task is influenced by the type of semantic category of the stimuli (biological and nonbiological elements). It is also an attempt to determine the effect of the stimulus presentation modality on the categorisation task. A semantic categorisation task (4 series of 40 stimuli) was administered to 256 participants (128 classifying pictures, and 128 classifying words). Biological categories were responded to faster than non-biological ones although there were no significant differences between the interaction of the category type and the stimulus presentation modality. Reaction times progressively decreased with practice. However, the initial differences dissapeared when subjects were trained. The way that current models account for these investigation findings is discussed. In addition, it is suggested that there is an attentional bias in favor of biological elements, which disappears when presumably less relevant elements become more relevant as a function of the task characteristics (AU)