Inhibitory properties of 1,4-dideoxy-1,4-imino-d-arabinitol (DAB) derivatives acting on glycogen metabolising enzymes.

Glycogen synthase (GS) and glycogen phosphorylase (GP) are the key enzymes that control, respectively, the synthesis and degradation of glycogen, a multi-branched glucose polymer that serves as a form of energy storage in bacteria, fungi and animals. An abnormal glycogen metabolism is associated with several human diseases. Thus, GS and GP constitute adequate pharmacological targets to modulate cellular glycogen levels by means of their selective inhibition. The compound 1,4-dideoxy-1,4-imino-d-arabinitol (DAB) is a known potent inhibitor of GP. We studied the inhibitory effect of DAB, its enantiomer LAB, and 29 DAB derivatives on the activity of rat muscle glycogen phosphorylase (RMGP) and E. coli glycogen synthase (EcGS). The isoform 4 of sucrose synthase (SuSy4) from Solanum tuberosum L. was also included in the study for comparative purposes. Although these three enzymes possess highly conserved catalytic site architectures, the DAB derivatives analysed showed extremely diverse inhibitory potential. Subtle changes in the positions of crucial residues in their active sites are sufficient to discriminate among the structural differences of the tested inhibitors. For the two Leloir-type enzymes, EcGS and SuSy4, which use sugar nucleotides as donors, the inhibitory potency of the compounds analysed was synergistically enhanced by more than three orders of magnitude in the presence of ADP and UDP, respectively. Our results are consistent with a model in which these compounds bind to the subsite in the active centre of the enzymes that is normally occupied by the glucosyl residue which is transferred between donor and acceptor substrates. The ability to selectively inhibit the catalytic activity of the key enzymes of the glycogen metabolism may represent a new approach for the treatment of disorders of the glycogen metabolism.

Correction: Selective photoregulation of the activity of glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase, two key enzymes in glycogen metabolism.

Correction for 'Selective photoregulation of the activity of glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase, two key enzymes in glycogen metabolism' by Mireia Díaz-Lobo, et al., Org. Biomol. Chem., 2015, 13, 7282-7288.

Selective photoregulation of the activity of glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase, two key enzymes in glycogen metabolism.

Glycogen is a polymer of α-1,4- and α-1,6-linked glucose units that provides a readily available source of energy in living organisms. Glycogen synthase (GS) and glycogen phosphorylase (GP) are the two enzymes that control, respectively, the synthesis and degradation of this polysaccharide and constitute adequate pharmacological targets to modulate cellular glycogen levels, by means of inhibition of their catalytic activity. Here we report on the synthesis and biological evaluation of a selective inhibitor that consists of an azobenzene moiety glycosidically linked to the anomeric carbon of a glucose molecule. In the ground state, the more stable (E)-isomer of the azobenzene glucoside had a slight inhibitory effect on rat muscle GP (RMGP, IC50 = 4.9 mM) and Escherichia coli GS (EcGS, IC50 = 1.6 mM). After irradiation and subsequent conversion to the (Z)-form, the inhibitory potency of the azobenzene glucoside did not significantly change for RMGP (IC50 = 2.4 mM), while its effect on EcGS increased 50-fold (IC50 = 32 µM). Sucrose synthase 4 from potatoes, a glycosyltransferase that does not operate on glycogen, was only slightly inhibited by the (E)-isomer (IC50 = 0.73 mM). These findings could be rationalized on the basis of kinetic and computer-aided docking analysis, which indicated that both isomers of the azobenzene glucoside mimic the EcGS acceptor substrate and exert their inhibitory effect by binding to the glycogen subsite in the active center of the enzyme. The ability to selectively photoregulate the catalytic activity of key enzymes of glycogen metabolism may represent a new approach for the treatment of glycogen metabolism disorders.

Structural asymmetry and disulfide bridges among subunits modulate the activity of human malonyl-CoA decarboxylase.

Decarboxylation of malonyl-CoA to acetyl-CoA by malonyl-CoA decarboxylase (MCD; EC 4.1.1.9) is an essential facet in the regulation of fatty acid metabolism. The structure of human peroxisomal MCD reveals a molecular tetramer that is best described as a dimer of structural heterodimers, in which the two subunits present markedly different conformations. This molecular organization is consistent with half-of-the-sites reactivity. Each subunit has an all-helix N-terminal domain and a catalytic C-terminal domain with an acetyltransferase fold (GNAT superfamily). Intersubunit disulfide bridges, Cys-206-Cys-206 and Cys-243-Cys-243, can link the four subunits of the tetramer, imparting positive cooperativity to the catalytic process. The combination of a half-of-the-sites mechanism within each structural heterodimer and positive cooperativity in the tetramer produces a complex regulatory picture that is further complicated by the multiple intracellular locations of the enzyme. Transport into the peroxisome has been investigated by docking human MCD onto the peroxisomal import protein peroxin 5, which revealed interactions that extend beyond the C-terminal targeting motif.

Lyase activity of glycogen synthase: Is an elimination/addition mechanism a possible reaction pathway for retaining glycosyltransferases?

Despite the biological relevance of glycosyltrasferases (GTs) and the many efforts devoted to this subject, the catalytic mechanism through which a subclass of this large family of enzymes, namely those that operate with net retention of the anomeric configuration, has not been fully established. Here, we show that in the absence of an acceptor, an archetypal retaining GT such as Pyrococcus abyssi glycogen synthase (PaGS) reacts with its glucosyl donor substrate, uridine 5'-diphosphoglucose (UDP-Glc), to produce the scission of the covalent bond between the terminal phosphate oxygen of UDP and the sugar ring. X-ray diffraction analysis of the PaGS/UDP-Glc complex shows no electronic density attributable to the UDP moiety, but establishes the presence in the active site of the enzyme of a glucose-like derivative that lacks the exocyclic oxygen attached to the anomeric carbon. Chemical derivatization followed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry of the isolated glucose-like species allowed us to identify the molecule found in the catalytic site of PaGS as 1,5-anhydro-D-arabino-hex-1-enitol (AA) or its tautomeric form, 1,5-anhydro-D-fructose. These findings are consistent with a stepwise S(N) i-like mechanism as the modus operandi of retaining GTs, a mechanism that involves the discrete existence of an oxocarbenium intermediate. Even in the absence of a glucosyl acceptor, glycogen synthase (GS) promotes the formation of the cationic intermediate, which, by eliminating the proton of the adjacent C2 carbon atom, yields AA. Alternatively, these observations could be interpreted assuming that AA is a true intermediate in the reaction pathway of GS and that this enzyme operates through an elimination/addition mechanism.

Expression of a green fluorescence protein-carrier protein into mouse spermatozoa.

Intra-testicular inoculation of an adenoviral vector carrying the fusion gene Aequorea victoria green fluorescence protein/rat-liver glycogen synthase (GFP/LGS) resulted in the presence of GFP/GLS in spermatozoa from 7days to, at least, 16days after inoculation. The GFP/LGS was detected in the sperm heads after an "in vitro" fertilization procedure, either before or after the oocyte penetration. Our results indicate that spermatozoa carrying GFP/LGS protein conserved their fertilizing ability and were also detectable after oocyte penetration. This technique will allow to develop an easy system to follow the fate of mature sperm proteins.