A unique multi-synaptic mechanism involving acetylcholine and GABA regulates dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens through early adolescence in male rats.

Adolescence is characterized by changes in reward-related behaviors, social behaviors, and decision-making. These behavioral changes are necessary for the transition into adulthood, but they also increase vulnerability to the development of a range of psychiatric disorders. Major reorganization of the dopamine system during adolescence is thought to underlie, in part, the associated behavioral changes and increased vulnerability. Here, we utilized fast scan cyclic voltammetry and microdialysis to examine differences in dopamine release as well as mechanisms that underlie differential dopamine signaling in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) core of adolescent (P28-35) and adult (P70-90) male rats. We show baseline differences between adult and adolescent-stimulated dopamine release in male rats, as well as opposite effects of the α6 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) on modulating dopamine release. The α6-selective blocker, α-conotoxin, increased dopamine release in early adolescent rats, but decreased dopamine release in rats beginning in middle adolescence and extending through adulthood. Strikingly, blockade of GABAA and GABAB receptors revealed that this α6-mediated increase in adolescent dopamine release requires NAc GABA signaling to occur. We confirm the role of α6 nAChRs and GABA in mediating this effect in vivo using microdialysis. Results herein suggest a multisynaptic mechanism potentially unique to the period of development that includes early adolescence, involving acetylcholine acting at α6-containing nAChRs to drive inhibitory GABA tone on dopamine release.

During adolescence, chemicals and cells in the brain undergo significant reorganization. These changes are thought to be why teenagers are often more vulnerable to developing drug addictions and psychiatric disorders. However, it is not fully understood how the brain transforms during this transitional period. Most of this reorganization takes place in the dopamine system which is responsible for triggering pleasurable sensations, including the feeling of reward after taking drugs. In 2020, a group of researchers found that adolescent male rats released less of the chemical dopamine in a part of the brain involved in the reward pathway than adult rats. But it was unclear what was causing this age-related effect. To investigate, Iacino et al. ­ including some of the researchers involved in the 2020 study ­blocked a family of receptors called nAChRs (short for nicotinic acetylcholine receptors) in the brain cells of male rats. These receptors bind to a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine which stimulates cells to release dopamine. Iacino et al. found that inhibiting a specific type of nAChR led to a decrease in dopamine in adult rats, but an increase in early adolescent rats. However, this effect was not observed when other types of nAChRs were inhibited. Iacino et al. found that the adolescent male rats also had higher levels of another neurotransmitter called GABA which blocks the release of dopamine. This led them to hypothesize that the reduced levels of dopamine in early adolescence may be due to increased levels of GABA, which is secreted by specialized cells which also have nAChRs on their surface. To investigate, Iacino et al. blocked two receptors for GABA that are found on dopamine-releasing neurons before exposing the rats to the nAChR inhibitor. This caused the adolescent rats to release less dopamine following nAChR inhibition, similar to the levels observed in adult rats. These findings suggest that the nAChR inhibitor leads to a rise in dopamine by stopping cells from releasing GABA ­ but only in adolescent rats. The work of Iacino et al. demonstrates how the dopamine system differs in adolescence, which may provide new insights in to why teenagers are often more susceptible to addiction. For instance, nicotine, the addictive substance in cigarettes, can also bind to nAChRs and make them less sensitive to acetylcholine. This may reduce the release of GABA, resulting in more dopamine being released which is then sensed as a reward by the teenage brain. However, more research is needed to fully understand how this brain circuit is modulated by nicotine intake.

Quantitative, high-sensitivity measurement of liquid analytes using a smartphone compass.

Smartphone ubiquity has led to rapid developments in portable diagnostics. While successful, such platforms are predominantly optics-based, using the smartphone camera as the sensing interface. By contrast, magnetics-based modalities exploiting the smartphone compass (magnetometer) remain unexplored, despite inherent advantages in optically opaque, scattering or auto-fluorescing samples. Here we report smartphone analyte sensing utilizing the built-in magnetometer for signal transduction via analyte-responsive magnetic-hydrogel composites. As these hydrogels dilate in response to targeted stimuli, they displace attached magnetic material relative to the phone's magnetometer. Using a bilayer hydrogel geometry to amplify this motion allows for sensitive, optics-free, quantitative liquid-based analyte measurements that require neither any electronics nor power beyond that contained within the smartphone itself. We demonstrate this concept with glucose-specific and pH-responsive hydrogels, including glucose detection down to single-digit micromolar concentrations with potential for extension to nanomolar sensitivities. The platform is adaptable to numerous measurands, opening a path towards portable, inexpensive sensing of multiple analytes or biomarkers of interest.

Novel Allosteric Modulator Southern Research Institute-32743 Reverses HIV-1 Transactivator of Transcription-Induced Increase in Dopamine Release in the Caudate Putamen of Inducible Transactivator of Transcription Transgenic Mice.

Development of neurocognitive disorder in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients has been linked to dysregulation of dopamine by the HIV-1 transactivator of transcription (Tat) protein, a negative allosteric modulator of dopamine transporter (DAT). Using fast scan cyclic voltammetry, the present study determined the effects of in vivo Tat expression on dopamine release in the caudate putamen of inducible Tat transgenic (iTat-tg) mice and the impact of a novel DAT allosteric modulator, Southern Research Institute (SRI)-32743, on the Tat effect. We found that 7- or 14-day doxycycline (Dox)-induced Tat expression in iTat-tg mice resulted in a 2-fold increase in phasic but not tonic stimulated baseline dopamine release relative to saline control mice. To determine whether the Tat-induced increase in dopamine release is mediated by DAT regulation, we examined the effect of an in vitro applied DAT inhibitor, nomifensine, on the dopamine release. Nomifensine (1 nM-10 µM) concentration-dependently enhanced phasic stimulated dopamine release in both saline- and Dox-treated iTat-tg mice, while the magnitude of the nomifensine-mediated dopamine release was unchanged between saline and Dox treatment groups. A single systemic administration of SRI-32743 prior to animal sacrifice reversed the increased dopamine release in the baseline of phasic dopamine release and nomifensine-augmented dopamine levels in Dox-treated iTat-tg mice, while SRI-32743 alone did not alter baseline of dopamine release. These findings suggest that Tat expression induced an increase in extracellular dopamine levels by not only inhibiting DAT-mediated dopamine transport but also stimulating synaptic dopamine release. Thus, DAT allosteric modulators may serve as a potential therapeutic intervention for HIV infection-dysregulated dopamine system observed in HIV-1 positive individuals. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: HIV infection-induced dysregulation of the dopaminergic system has been implicated in the development of neurocognitive impairments observed in HIV positive patients. Understanding the mechanisms underlying HIV-1 Tat protein-induced alteration of extracellular dopamine levels will provide insights into the development of molecules that can attenuate Tat interaction with targets in the dopaminergic system. Here, we determined whether Tat alters dopamine release and how the novel DAT allosteric modulator, SRI-32743, impacts dopamine neurotransmission to attenuate Tat-induced effects on extracellular dopamine dynamics.

Demographic, behavioural and occupational risk factors associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection in UK healthcare workers: a retrospective observational study.

OBJECTIVE: Healthcare workers (HCWs) are at higher risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection than the general population. This group is pivotal to healthcare system resilience during the COVID-19, and future, pandemics. We investigated demographic, social, behavioural and occupational risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection among HCWs. DESIGN/SETTING/PARTICIPANTS: HCWs enrolled in a large-scale sero-epidemiological study at a UK university teaching hospital were sent questionnaires spanning a 5-month period from March to July 2020. In a retrospective observational cohort study, univariate logistic regression was used to assess factors associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection. A Least Absolute Shrinkage Selection Operator regression model was used to identify variables to include in a multivariate logistic regression model. RESULTS: Among 2258 HCWs, highest ORs associated with SARS-CoV-2 antibody seropositivity on multivariate analysis were having a household member previously testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies (OR 6.94 (95% CI 4.15 to 11.6); p<0.0001) and being of black ethnicity (6.21 (95% CI 2.69 to 14.3); p<0.0001). Occupational factors associated with a higher risk of seropositivity included working as a physiotherapist (OR 2.78 (95% CI 1.21 to 6.36); p=0.015) and working predominantly in acute medicine (OR 2.72 (95% CI 1.57 to 4.69); p<0.0001) or medical subspecialties (not including infectious diseases) (OR 2.33 (95% CI 1.4 to 3.88); p=0.001). Reporting that adequate personal protective equipment (PPE) was 'rarely' available had an OR of 2.83 (95% CI 1.29 to 6.25; p=0.01). Reporting attending a handover where social distancing was not possible had an OR of 1.39 (95% CI 1.02 to 1.9; p=0.038). CONCLUSIONS: The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants and potential vaccine escape continue to threaten stability of healthcare systems worldwide, and sustained vigilance against HCW infection remains a priority. Enhanced risk assessments should be considered for HCWs of black ethnicity, physiotherapists and those working in acute medicine or medical subspecialties. Workplace risk reduction measures include ongoing access to high-quality PPE and effective social distancing measures.

A prospective study of risk factors associated with seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in healthcare workers at a large UK teaching hospital.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection in UK healthcare workers (HCWs). METHODS: We conducted a prospective sero-epidemiological study of HCWs at a major UK teaching hospital using a SARS-CoV-2 immunoassay. Risk factors for seropositivity were analysed using multivariate logistic regression. RESULTS: 410/5,698 (7·2%) staff tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. Seroprevalence was higher in those working in designated COVID-19 areas compared with other areas (9·47% versus 6·16%) Healthcare assistants (aOR 2·06 [95%CI 1·14-3·71]; p=0·016) and domestic and portering staff (aOR 3·45 [95% CI 1·07-11·42]; p=0·039) had significantly higher seroprevalence than other staff groups after adjusting for age, sex, ethnicity and COVID-19 working location. Staff working in acute medicine and medical sub-specialities were also at higher risk (aOR 2·07 [95% CI 1·31-3·25]; p<0·002). Staff from Black, Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) backgrounds had an aOR of 1·65 (95% CI 1·32 - 2·07; p<0·001) compared to white staff; this increased risk was independent of COVID-19 area working. The only symptoms significantly associated with seropositivity in a multivariable model were loss of sense of taste or smell, fever, and myalgia; 31% of staff testing positive reported no prior symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection amongst HCWs is highly heterogeneous and influenced by COVID-19 working location, role, age and ethnicity. Increased risk amongst BAME staff cannot be accounted for solely by occupational factors.

Diurnal rhythms in cholinergic modulation of rapid dopamine signals and associative learning in the striatum.

Dysregulation of biological rhythms plays a role in a wide range of psychiatric disorders. We report mechanistic insights into the rhythms of rapid dopamine signals and cholinergic interneurons (CINs) working in concert in the rodent striatum. These rhythms mediate diurnal variation in conditioned responses to reward-associated cues. We report that the dopamine signal-to-noise ratio varies according to the time of day and that phasic signals are magnified during the middle of the dark cycle in rats. We show that CINs provide the mechanism for diurnal variation in rapid dopamine signals by serving as a gain of function to the dopamine signal-to-noise ratio that adjusts across time of day. We also show that conditioned responses to reward-associated cues exhibit diurnal rhythms, with cue-directed behaviors observed exclusively midway through the dark cycle. We conclude that the rapid dopamine signaling rhythm is mediated by a diurnal rhythm in CIN activity, which influences learning and motivated behaviors across the time of day.

α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor modulation of accumbal dopamine release covaries with novelty seeking.

Heightened novelty-seeking phenotypes are associated with a range of behavioural traits including susceptibility to drug use. These relationships are recapitulated in preclinical models, where rats that exhibit increased exploratory activity in novel environments (high responders-HR) acquire self-administration of psychostimulants more rapidly compared to rats that display low novelty exploration (low responders-LR). Dopamine release dynamics in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) covaries with response to novelty, and differences in dopaminergic signalling are thought to be a major underlying driver of the link between novelty seeking and drug use vulnerability. Accumbal dopamine release is controlled by local microcircuits including modulation through glutamatergic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) systems, but whether these mechanisms contribute to disparate dopamine signalling across novelty phenotypes is unclear. Here, we used ex vivo voltammetry in the NAc of rats to determine if α7 nAChRs contribute to differential dopamine dynamics associated with individual differences in novelty exploration. We found that blockade of α7 nAChRs attenuates tonic dopamine release evoked by low-frequency stimulations across phenotypes but that phasic release is decreased in LRs while HRs are unaffected. These stimulation frequency- and phenotype-dependent effects result in a decreased dynamic range of release exclusively in LRs. Furthermore, we found that differential α7 modulation of dopamine release in LRs is dependent on AMPA but not NMDA receptors. These results help to form an understanding of the local NAc microcircuitry and provide a potential mechanism for covariance of dopamine dynamics and sensitivity to the reinforcing effects of drugs of abuse.

Efficacy of FFP3 respirators for prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection in healthcare workers.

Background: Respiratory protective equipment recommended in the UK for healthcare workers (HCWs) caring for patients with COVID-19 comprises a fluid-resistant surgical mask (FRSM), except in the context of aerosol generating procedures (AGPs). We previously demonstrated frequent pauci- and asymptomatic severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection HCWs during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK, using a comprehensive PCR-based HCW screening programme (Rivett et al., 2020; Jones et al., 2020). Methods: Here, we use observational data and mathematical modelling to analyse infection rates amongst HCWs working on 'red' (coronavirus disease 2019, COVID-19) and 'green' (non-COVID-19) wards during the second wave of the pandemic, before and after the substitution of filtering face piece 3 (FFP3) respirators for FRSMs. Results: Whilst using FRSMs, HCWs working on red wards faced an approximately 31-fold (and at least fivefold) increased risk of direct, ward-based infection. Conversely, after changing to FFP3 respirators, this risk was significantly reduced (52-100% protection). Conclusions: FFP3 respirators may therefore provide more effective protection than FRSMs for HCWs caring for patients with COVID-19, whether or not AGPs are undertaken. Funding: Wellcome Trust, Medical Research Council, Addenbrooke's Charitable Trust, NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, NHS Blood and Transfusion, UKRI.

Superspreaders drive the largest outbreaks of hospital onset COVID-19 infections.

SARS-CoV-2 is notable both for its rapid spread, and for the heterogeneity of its patterns of transmission, with multiple published incidences of superspreading behaviour. Here, we applied a novel network reconstruction algorithm to infer patterns of viral transmission occurring between patients and health care workers (HCWs) in the largest clusters of COVID-19 infection identified during the first wave of the epidemic at Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, UK. Based upon dates of individuals reporting symptoms, recorded individual locations, and viral genome sequence data, we show an uneven pattern of transmission between individuals, with patients being much more likely to be infected by other patients than by HCWs. Further, the data were consistent with a pattern of superspreading, whereby 21% of individuals caused 80% of transmission events. Our study provides a detailed retrospective analysis of nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 transmission, and sheds light on the need for intensive and pervasive infection control procedures.

The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, presents a global public health challenge. Hospitals have been at the forefront of this battle, treating large numbers of sick patients over several waves of infection. Finding ways to manage the spread of the virus in hospitals is key to protecting vulnerable patients and workers, while keeping hospitals running, but to generate effective infection control, researchers must understand how SARS-CoV-2 spreads. A range of factors make studying the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in hospitals tricky. For instance, some people do not present any symptoms, and, amongst those who do, it can be difficult to determine whether they caught the virus in the hospital or somewhere else. However, comparing the genetic information of the SARS-CoV-2 virus from different people in a hospital could allow scientists to understand how it spreads. Samples of the genetic material of SARS-CoV-2 can be obtained by swabbing infected individuals. If the genetic sequences of two samples are very different, it is unlikely that the individuals who provided the samples transmitted the virus to one another. Illingworth, Hamilton et al. used this information, along with other data about how SARS-CoV-2 is transmitted, to develop an algorithm that can determine how the virus spreads from person to person in different hospital wards. To build their algorithm, Illingworth, Hamilton et al. collected SARS-CoV-2 genetic data from patients and staff in a hospital, and combined it with information about how SARS-CoV-2 spreads and how these people moved in the hospital . The algorithm showed that, for the most part, patients were infected by other patients (20 out of 22 cases), while staff were infected equally by patients and staff. By further probing these data, Illingworth, Hamilton et al. revealed that 80% of hospital-acquired infections were caused by a group of just 21% of individuals in the study, identifying a 'superspreader' pattern. These findings may help to inform SARS-CoV-2 infection control measures to reduce spread within hospitals, and could potentially be used to improve infection control in other contexts.

Single-dose BNT162b2 vaccine protects against asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection.

The BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine (Pfizer-BioNTech) is being utilised internationally for mass COVID-19 vaccination. Evidence of single-dose protection against symptomatic disease has encouraged some countries to opt for delayed booster doses of BNT162b2, but the effect of this strategy on rates of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection remains unknown. We previously demonstrated frequent pauci- and asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection amongst healthcare workers (HCWs) during the UK's first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, using a comprehensive PCR-based HCW screening programme (Rivett et al., 2020; Jones et al., 2020). Here, we evaluate the effect of first-dose BNT162b2 vaccination on test positivity rates and find a fourfold reduction in asymptomatic infection amongst HCWs ≥12 days post-vaccination. These data provide real-world evidence of short-term protection against asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection following a single dose of BNT162b2 vaccine, suggesting that mass first-dose vaccination will reduce SARS-CoV-2 transmission, as well as the burden of COVID-19 disease.

Metabotropic glutamate 2,3 receptor stimulation desensitizes agonist activation of G-protein signaling and alters transcription regulators in mesocorticolimbic brain regions.

Metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors are regulators of glutamate release and targets for development of therapies for hyperactive glutamatergic signaling. However, the effects of long-term stimulation of mGlu receptors on cellular signaling in the brain have not been described. This study investigated the effects of 2-day and 14-day osmotic mini-pump administration of the mGlu2,3 agonist LY379268 (3.0 mg kg-1  day-1 ) to rats on receptor-mediated G-protein activation and signaling in mesocorticolimbic regions in rat brain sections. A significant reduction in LY379268-stimulated [35 S]GTPγS binding was observed in the 14-day group in some cortical regions, prefrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, and ventral pallidum. The 14-day LY379268 treatment group exhibited mGlu2 mRNA levels significantly lower in hippocampus, nucleus accumbens, caudate, and ventral pallidum. In both 2-day and 14-day treatment groups immunodetectable phosphorylated cAMP Response Element-Binding protein (CREB) was significantly reduced across all brain regions. In the 2-day group, we observed significantly lower immunodetectable CREB protein across all brain regions, which was subsequently increased in the 14-day group but failed to achieve control values. Neither immunodetectable extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) protein nor phosphorylated ERK from 2-day or 14-day treatment groups differed significantly from control across all brain regions. However, the ratio of phosphorylated ERK to total ERK protein was significantly greater in the 14-day treatment group compared with the control. These results identify compensatory changes to mGlu2,3 signal transduction in rat brains after chronic systemic administration of agonist, which could be predictive of the mechanism of action in human pharmacotherapies.

Effective control of SARS-CoV-2 transmission between healthcare workers during a period of diminished community prevalence of COVID-19.

Previously, we showed that 3% (31/1032)of asymptomatic healthcare workers (HCWs) from a large teaching hospital in Cambridge, UK, tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 in April 2020. About 15% (26/169) HCWs with symptoms of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) also tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 (Rivett et al., 2020). Here, we show that the proportion of both asymptomatic and symptomatic HCWs testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 rapidly declined to near-zero between 25th April and 24th May 2020, corresponding to a decline in patient admissions with COVID-19 during the ongoing UK 'lockdown'. These data demonstrate how infection prevention and control measures including staff testing may help prevent hospitals from becoming independent 'hubs' of SARS-CoV-2 transmission, and illustrate how, with appropriate precautions, organizations in other sectors may be able to resume on-site work safely.

Comparing dopamine release, uptake, and D2 autoreceptor function across the ventromedial to dorsolateral striatum in adolescent and adult male and female rats.

Adolescence is characterized by changes in behavior, such as increases in sensation seeking and risk taking, and increased vulnerability to developing a range of psychiatric disorders, including substance abuse disorders (SUD) and mood disorders. The mesolimbic dopamine system plays an essential role in mediating these behaviors and disorders. Therefore, it is imperative to understand how the dopamine system and its regulation are changing during this period of development. Here, we used ex vivo fast scan cyclic voltammetry to compare stimulated dopamine release and its local circuitry regulation between early adolescent and adult male and female Sprague-Dawley rats. We found that, compared to adults, adolescent males have decreased stimulated dopamine release in the NAc core, while adolescent females have increased dopamine release in the NAc shell, NAc core, and DMS. We also found sex- and region-specific differences in other dopamine dynamics, including maximal dopamine uptake (Vmax), release across a range of stimulation frequencies, and autoreceptor regulation of dopamine release. Better understanding how the dopamine system develops during adolescence will be imperative for understanding what mediates adolescent vulnerability to developing psychiatric disorders and how disruptions during this period of reorganization could alter behaviors and vulnerability into adulthood.

Screening of healthcare workers for SARS-CoV-2 highlights the role of asymptomatic carriage in COVID-19 transmission.

Significant differences exist in the availability of healthcare worker (HCW) SARS-CoV-2 testing between countries, and existing programmes focus on screening symptomatic rather than asymptomatic staff. Over a 3 week period (April 2020), 1032 asymptomatic HCWs were screened for SARS-CoV-2 in a large UK teaching hospital. Symptomatic staff and symptomatic household contacts were additionally tested. Real-time RT-PCR was used to detect viral RNA from a throat+nose self-swab. 3% of HCWs in the asymptomatic screening group tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. 17/30 (57%) were truly asymptomatic/pauci-symptomatic. 12/30 (40%) had experienced symptoms compatible with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)>7 days prior to testing, most self-isolating, returning well. Clusters of HCW infection were discovered on two independent wards. Viral genome sequencing showed that the majority of HCWs had the dominant lineage B∙1. Our data demonstrates the utility of comprehensive screening of HCWs with minimal or no symptoms. This approach will be critical for protecting patients and hospital staff.

Patients admitted to NHS hospitals are now routinely screened for SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19), and isolated from other patients if necessary. Yet healthcare workers, including frontline patient-facing staff such as doctors, nurses and physiotherapists, are only tested and excluded from work if they develop symptoms of the illness. However, there is emerging evidence that many people infected with SARS-CoV-2 never develop significant symptoms: these people will therefore be missed by 'symptomatic-only' testing. There is also important data showing that around half of all transmissions of SARS-CoV-2 happen before the infected individual even develops symptoms. This means that much broader testing programs are required to spot people when they are most infectious. Rivett, Sridhar, Sparkes, Routledge et al. set out to determine what proportion of healthcare workers was infected with SARS-CoV-2 while also feeling generally healthy at the time of testing. Over 1,000 staff members at a large UK hospital who felt they were well enough to work, and did not fit the government criteria for COVID-19 infection, were tested. Amongst these, 3% were positive for SARS-CoV-2. On closer questioning, around one in five reported no symptoms, two in five very mild symptoms that they had dismissed as inconsequential, and a further two in five reported COVID-19 symptoms that had stopped more than a week previously. In parallel, healthcare workers with symptoms of COVID-19 (and their household contacts) who were self-isolating were also tested, in order to allow those without the virus to quickly return to work and bolster a stretched workforce. Finally, the rates of infection were examined to probe how the virus could have spread through the hospital and among staff ­ and in particular, to understand whether rates of infection were greater among staff working in areas devoted to COVID-19 patients. Despite wearing appropriate personal protective equipment, healthcare workers in these areas were almost three times more likely to test positive than those working in areas without COVID-19 patients. However, it is not clear whether this genuinely reflects greater rates of patients passing the infection to staff. Staff may give the virus to each other, or even acquire it at home. Overall, this work implies that hospitals need to be vigilant and introduce broad screening programmes across their workforces. It will be vital to establish such approaches before 'lockdown' is fully lifted, so healthcare institutions are prepared for any second peak of infections.

Dopamine D2 autoreceptor interactome: Targeting the receptor complex as a strategy for treatment of substance use disorder.

Dopamine D2 autoreceptors (D2ARs), located in somatodendritic and axon terminal compartments of dopamine (DA) neurons, function to provide a negative feedback regulatory control on DA neuron firing, DA synthesis, reuptake and release. Dysregulation of D2AR-mediated DA signaling is implicated in vulnerability to substance use disorder (SUD). Due to the extreme low abundance of D2ARs compared to postsynaptic D2 receptors (D2PRs) and the lack of experimental tools to differentiate the signaling of D2ARs from D2PRs, the regulation of D2ARs by drugs of abuse is poorly understood. The recent availability of conditional D2AR knockout mice and newly developed virus-mediated gene delivery approaches have provided means to specifically study the function of D2ARs at the molecular, cellular and behavioral levels. There is a growing revelation of novel mechanisms and new proteins that mediate D2AR activity, suggesting that D2ARs act cooperatively with an array of membrane and intracellular proteins to tightly control DA transmission. This review highlights D2AR-interacting partners including transporters, G-protein-coupled receptors, ion channels, intracellular signaling modulators, and protein kinases. The complexity of the D2AR interaction network illustrates the functional divergence of D2ARs. Pharmacological targeting of multiple D2AR-interacting partners may be more effective to restore disrupted DA homeostasis by drugs of abuse.