Kinetic characterization of a glycoside hydrolase family 44 xyloglucanase/endoglucanase from Ruminococcus flavefaciens FD-1.

Two forms of Ruminococcus flavefaciens FD-1 endoglucanase B, a member of glycoside hydrolase family 44, one with only a catalytic domain and the other with a catalytic domain and a carbohydrate binding domain (CBM), were produced. Both forms hydrolyzed cellotetraose, cellopentaose, cellohexaose, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), birchwood and larchwood xylan, xyloglucan, lichenan, and Avicel but not cellobiose, cellotriose, mannan, or pullulan. Addition of the CBM increased catalytic efficiencies on both CMC and birchwood xylan but not on xyloglucan, and it decreased rates of cellopentaose and cellohexaose hydrolysis. Catalytic efficiencies were much higher on xyloglucan than on other polysaccharides. Hydrolysis rates increased with increasing cellooligosaccharide chain length. Cellotetraose hydrolysis yielded only cellotriose and glucose. Hydrolysis of cellopentaose gave large amounts of cellotetraose and glucose, somewhat more of the former than of the latter, and much smaller amounts of cellobiose and cellotriose. Cellohexaose hydrolysis yielded much more cellotetraose than cellobiose and small amounts of glucose and cellotriose, along with a low and transient amount of cellopentaose.

Tertiary structure and characterization of a glycoside hydrolase family 44 endoglucanase from Clostridium acetobutylicum.

A gene encoding a glycoside hydrolase family 44 (GH44) protein from Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824 was synthesized and transformed into Escherichia coli. The previously uncharacterized protein was expressed with a C-terminal His tag and purified by nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid affinity chromatography. Crystallization and X-ray diffraction to a 2.2-A resolution revealed a triose phosphate isomerase (TIM) barrel-like structure with additional Greek key and beta-sandwich folds, similar to other GH44 crystal structures. The enzyme hydrolyzes cellotetraose and larger cellooligosaccharides, yielding an unbalanced product distribution, including some glucose. It attacks carboxymethylcellulose and xylan at approximately the same rates. Its activity on carboxymethylcellulose is much higher than that of the isolated C. acetobutylicum cellulosome. It also extensively converts lichenan to oligosaccharides of intermediate size and attacks Avicel to a limited extent. The enzyme has an optimal temperature in a 10-min assay of 55 degrees C and an optimal pH of 5.0.

Genetic analysis of opaque2 modifier loci in quality protein maize.

Quality protein maize (QPM) was created by selecting genetic modifiers that convert the starchy endosperm of an opaque2 (o2) mutant to a hard, vitreous phenotype. Genetic analysis has shown that there are multiple, unlinked o2 modifiers (Opm), but their identity and mode of action are unknown. Using two independently developed QPM lines, we mapped several major Opm QTLs to chromosomes 1, 7 and 9. A microarray hybridization performed with RNA obtained from true breeding o2 progeny with vitreous and opaque kernel phenotypes identified a small group of differentially expressed genes, some of which map at or near the Opm QTLs. Several of the genes are associated with ethylene and ABA signaling and suggest a potential linkage of o2 endosperm modification with programmed cell death.

Directed evolution of Aspergillus niger glucoamylase to increase thermostability.

Using directed evolution and site-directed mutagenesis, we have isolated a highly thermostable variant of Aspergillus niger glucoamylase (GA), designated CR2-1. CR2-1 includes the previously described mutations Asn20Cys and Ala27Cys (forming a new disulfide bond), Ser30Pro, Thr62Ala, Ser119Pro, Gly137Ala, Thr290Ala, His391Tyr and Ser436Pro. In addition, CR2-1 includes several new putative thermostable mutations, Val59Ala, Val88Ile, Ser211Pro, Asp293Ala, Thr390Ser, Tyr402Phe and Glu408Lys, identified by directed evolution. CR2-1 GA has a catalytic efficiency (k(cat)/K(m)) at 35°C and a specific activity at 50°C similar to that of wild-type GA. Irreversible inactivation tests indicated that CR2-1 increases the free energy of thermoinactivation at 80°C by 10 kJ mol(-1) compared with that of wild-type GA. Thus, CR2-1 is more thermostable (by 5 kJ mol(-1) at 80°C) than the most thermostable A. niger GA variant previously described, THS8. In addition, Val59Ala and Glu408Lys were shown to individually increase the thermostability in GA variants by 1 and 2 kJ mol(-1), respectively, at 80°C.

Starch-binding domain shuffling in Aspergillus niger glucoamylase.

Aspergillus niger glucoamylase (GA) consists mainly of two forms, GAI [from the N-terminus, catalytic domain + linker + starch-binding domain (SBD)] and GAII (catalytic domain + linker). These domains were shuffled to make RGAI (SBD + linker + catalytic domain), RGAIDeltaL (SBD + catalytic domain) and RGAII (linker + catalytic domain), with domains defined by function rather than by tertiary structure. In addition, Paenibacillus macerans cyclomaltodextrin glucanotransferase SBD replaced the closely related A.niger GA SBD to give GAE. Soluble starch hydrolysis rates decreased as RGAII approximately GAII approximately GAI > RGAIDeltaL approximately RGAI approximately GAE. Insoluble starch hydrolysis rates were GAI > RGAIDeltaL > RGAI >> GAE approximately RGAII > GAII, while insoluble starch-binding capacities were GAI > RGAI > RGAIDeltaL > RGAII > GAII > GAE. These results indicate that: (i) moving the SBD to the N-terminus or replacing the native SBD somewhat affects soluble starch hydrolysis; (ii) SBD location significantly affects insoluble starch binding and hydrolysis; (iii) insoluble starch hydrolysis is imperfectly correlated with its binding by the SBD; and (iv) placing the P.macerans cyclomaltodextrin glucanotransferase SBD at the end of a linker, instead of closely associated with the rest of the enzyme, severely reduces its ability to bind and hydrolyze insoluble starch.