Ex vivo Comprehensive Multiphase NMR of whole organisms: A complementary tool to in vivo NMR.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a non-invasive analytical technique which allows for the study of intact samples. Comprehensive Multiphase NMR (CMP-NMR) combines techniques and hardware from solution state and solid state NMR to allow for the holistic analysis of all phases (i.e. solutions, gels and solids) in unaltered samples. This study is the first to apply CMP-NMR to deceased, intact organisms and uses 13C enriched Daphnia magna (water fleas) as an example. D. magna are commonly used model organisms for environmental toxicology studies. As primary consumers, they are responsible for the transfer of nutrients across trophic levels, and a decline in their population can potentially impact the entire freshwater aquatic ecosystem. Though in vivo research is the ultimate tool to understand an organism's most biologically relevant state, studies are limited by conditions (i.e. oxygen requirements, limited experiment time and reduced spinning speed) required to keep the organisms alive, which can negatively impact the quality of the data collected. In comparison, ex vivo CMP-NMR is beneficial in that; organisms do not need oxygen (eliminating air holes in rotor caps and subsequent evaporation); samples can be spun faster, leading to improved spectral resolution; more biomass per sample can be analyzed; and experiments can be run for longer. In turn, higher quality ex vivo NMR, can provide more comprehensive NMR assignments, which in many cases could be transferred to better understand less resolved in vivo signals. This manuscript is divided into three sections: 1) multiphase spectral editing techniques, 2) detailed metabolic assignments of 2D NMR of 13C enriched D. magna and 3) multiphase biological changes over different life stages, ages and generations of D. magna. In summary, ex vivo CMP-NMR proves to be a very powerful approach to study whole organisms in a comprehensive manner and should provide very complementary information to in vivo based research.

Comprehensive Multiphase (CMP) NMR Monitoring of the Structural Changes and Molecular Flux Within a Growing Seed.

A relatively recent technique termed comprehensive multiphase (CMP) NMR spectroscopy was used to investigate the growth and associated metabolomic changes of 13C-labeled wheat seeds and germinated seedlings. CMP-NMR enables the study of all phases in intact samples (i.e., liquid, gel-like, semisolid, and solid), by combining all required electronics into a single NMR probe, and can be used for investigating biological processes such as seed germination. All components, from the most liquid-like (i.e., dissolved metabolites) to the most rigid or solid-like (seed coat) were monitored in situ over 4 days. A wide range of metabolites were identified, and after 96 h of germination, the number of metabolites in the mobile phase more than doubled in comparison to 0 h (dry seed). This work represents the first application of CMP-NMR to follow biological processes in plants.

Effective combined water and sideband suppression for low-speed tissue and in vivo MAS NMR.

High-resolution magic angle spinning (HR-MAS) NMR is a powerful technique that can provide metabolic profiles and structural constraints on intact biological and environmental samples such as cells, tissues and living organisms. However, centripetal force from fast spinning can lead to a loss of sample integrity. In analyses focusing on structural organization, metabolite compartmentalization or in vivo studies, it is critical to keep the sample intact. As such, there is growing interest in slow spinning studies that preserve sample longevity. In this study, for example, reducing the spinning rate from 2500 to 500 Hz during the analysis of a living freshwater shrimp increased the 100% survivability threshold from ~14 to 40 h. Unfortunately, reducing spinning rate decreases the intensity of the isotropic signals and increases both the intensity and number of spinning sidebands, which mask spectral information. Interestingly, water suppression approaches such as excitation sculpting and W5 WATERGATE, which are effective at higher spinning rates, fail at lower spinning rates (<2500 Hz) while simpler approaches such as presaturation are not able to effectively suppress water when the ratio of water to biomass is very high, as is the case in vivo. As such there is a considerable gap in NMR approaches which can be used to suppress water signals and sidebands in biological samples at lower spinning rates. This research presents simple but practically important sequences that combine PURGE water suppression with both phase-adjusted spinning sidebands and an analogue of TOSS termed TOSS.243. The result is simple and effective water and sideband suppression even in extremely dilute samples in pure water down to ~100 Hz spinning rate. The approach is introduced, described and applied to a range of samples including, ex vivo worm tissue, Daphnia magna (water fleas), and in vivo Hyalella azteca (shrimp).

Identification of aquatically available carbon from algae through solution-state NMR of whole (13)C-labelled cells.

Green algae and cyanobacteria are primary producers with profound impact on food web functioning. Both represent key carbon sources and sinks in the aquatic environment, helping modulate the dissolved organic matter balance and representing a potential biofuel source. Underlying the impact of algae and cyanobacteria on an ecosystem level is their molecular composition. Herein, intact (13)C-labelled whole cell suspensions of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Chlorella vulgaris and Synechocystis were studied using a variety of 1D and 2D (1)H/(13)C solution-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic experiments. Solution-state NMR spectroscopy of whole cell suspensions is particularly relevant as it identifies species that are mobile (dissolved or dynamic gels), 'aquatically available' and directly contribute to the aquatic carbon pool upon lysis, death or become a readily available food source on consumption. In this study, a wide range of metabolites and structural components were identified within the whole cell suspensions. In addition, significant differences in the lipid/triacylglyceride (TAG) content of green algae and cyanobacteria were confirmed. Mobile species in algae are quite different from those in abundance in 'classic' dissolved organic matter (DOM) indicating that if algae are major contributors to DOM, considerable selective preservation of minor components (e.g. sterols) or biotransformation would have to occur. Identifying the metabolites and dissolved components within algal cells by NMR permits future studies of carbon transfer between species and through the food chain, whilst providing a foundation to better understand the role of algae in the formation of DOM and the sequestration/transformation of carbon in aquatic environments.

Comprehensive multiphase NMR applied to a living organism.

Comprehensive multiphase (CMP) NMR is a novel technology that integrates all the hardware from solution-, gel- and solid-state into a single NMR probe, permitting all phases to be studied in intact samples. Here comprehensive multiphase (CMP) NMR is used to study all components in a living organism for the first time. This work describes 4 new scientific accomplishments summarized as: (1) CMP-NMR is applied to a living animal, (2) an effective method to deliver oxygen to the organisms is described which permits longer studies essential for in-depth NMR analysis in general, (3) a range of spectral editing approaches are applied to fully differentiate the various phases solutions (metabolites) through to solids (shell) (4) 13C isotopic labelling and multidimensional NMR are combined to provide detailed assignment of metabolites and structural components in vivo. While not explicitly studied here the multiphase capabilities of the technique offer future possibilities to study kinetic transfer between phases (e.g. nutrient assimilation, contaminant sequestration), molecular binding at interfaces (e.g. drug or contaminant binding) and bonding across and between phases (e.g. muscle to bone) in vivo. Future work will need to focus on decreasing the spinning speed to reduce organism stress during analysis.

Comprehensive multiphase NMR: a promising technology to study plants in their native state.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is arguably one the most powerful tools to study the interactions and molecular structure within plants. Traditionally, however, NMR has developed as two separate fields, one dealing with liquids and the other dealing with solids. Plants in their native state contain components that are soluble, swollen, and true solids. Here, a new form of NMR spectroscopy, developed in 2012, termed comprehensive multiphase (CMP)-NMR is applied for plant analysis. The technology composes all aspects of solution, gel, and solid-state NMR into a single NMR probe such that all components in all phases in native unaltered samples can be studied and differentiated in situ. The technology is evaluated using wild-type Arabidopsis thaliana and the cellulose-deficient mutant ectopic lignification1 (eli1) as examples. Using CMP-NMR to study intact samples eliminated the bias introduced by extraction methods and enabled the acquisition of a more complete structural and metabolic profile; thus, CMP-NMR revealed molecular differences between wild type (WT) and eli1 that could be overlooked by conventional methods. Methanol, fatty acids and/or lipids, glutamine, phenylalanine, starch, and nucleic acids were more abundant in eli1 than in WT. Pentaglycine was present in A. thaliana seedlings and more abundant in eli1 than in WT.

Solvent effects on chemical exchange in a push-pull ethylene as studied by NMR and electronic structure calculations.

NMR measurements of chemical exchange in a push-pull ethylene, dissolved in a number of different solvents, are presented. These are complemented by high-level electronic structure calculations, using both gas-phase conditions and those which simulate solvents. The results show that it is essential to include entropy effects in order to understand the observed trends. For instance, the equilibrium state in this case represents the state with lowest Gibbs free energy, as it must, but not the lowest enthalpy. The particular molecule is methyl 3-dimethylamino-2-cyanocrotonate (MDACC). The geometry at the carbon-carbon double bond can be either E or Z with roughly equal populations at ambient temperature. We have measured the equilibrium constant and the rates for the exchange between these states in a number of solvents: methanol, chloroform, acetonitrile, toluene, dichloromethane, acetone, and tetrahydrofuran. Furthermore, the N,N-dimethylamino group attached to the double bond also shows restricted rotation, and this has been measured in both the E and Z conformations. The equilibrium constant and the three rotational barriers provide excellent probes of the solvent effects. Electronic structure calculations with a number of basis sets up to the 6-311++G(2df,2p) level, using both Hartree-Fock and density functional (B3LYP) methods were used to predict the E and Z ground states, and the three transition states. The calculations were done for an isolated molecule and also for solvent models representing toluene, acetone, and ethanol. The E conformation is more stable in solution, is the structure in the crystal, and is also the prediction for the gas phase from the calculations. However, the dependence of the equilibrium constant on temperature shows that the Z conformation actually has lower enthalpy. The stability of the E conformation in solution must be due to entropic effects. Similarly, the solvent effect on the E-Z barrier is primarily due to entropy. The measured enthalpy of activation is similar in all the solvents, but the entropy of activation increases with the solvent polarity. The barrier to rotation of the N,N-dimethylamino group shows a combination of entropy and enthalpy effects. This combination of experiments and theory gives an extraordinarily detailed picture of solvent-solute interactions.