Knowledge of non-communicable diseases and access to healthcare services among adults before and during COVID-19 pandemic in rural Tanzania.

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic significantly affected access to healthcare services, particularly among individuals living with Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) who require regular healthcare visits. Studies suggest that knowledge about a specific disease is closely linked to the ability to access services for that condition. In preparation for the future, we conducted the study to assess knowledge of NCDs and access to healthcare services among adults residing in rural areas before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: We conducted a community-based cross-sectional study in rural Tanzania in October 2022, a few months after the end of the third wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. A total of 689 community residents participated in the study. The level of knowledge of NCDs was assessed using an 11-item Likert questionnaire, which was later dichotomized into adequate and inadequate levels of knowledge. In addition, access to healthcare was assessed before and during the pandemic. We summarized the results using descriptive statistics and logistic regression was applied to determine factors associated with adequate levels of knowledge of NCDs. All statistical tests were two-sided; a p-value <0.05 was considered statistically significant. All data analyses were performed using SPSS. Results: Among 689 participants, more than half 369 (55%) had adequate knowledge of whether a disease is NCD or not; specifically, 495 (73.8%), 465 (69.3%), and 349 (52%) knew that hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and stroke are NCDs while 424 (63.2%) know that UTI is not NCD. Of the interviewed participants, 75 (11.2%) had at least one NCD. During the COVID-19 pandemic the majority 57 (72.2%) accessed healthcare services from nearby health facilities followed by traditional healers 10 (12.7%) and community drug outlets 8 (10.1%). Residence and education level were found to be significantly associated with knowledge of NCDs among participants. Conclusion: The study revealed that the community has a moderate level of knowledge of NCDs, and during the COVID-19 pandemic outbreaks, people living with NCD (s) relied on nearby health facilities to obtain healthcare services. Health system preparedness and response to pandemics should take into account empowering the community members to understand that NCD care is continuously needed even during pandemic times. We further advocate for a qualitative study to explore contextual factors influencing the knowledge of NCDs and access to healthcare services beyond the big domains of education and residence.

A Qualitative Exploration on Perceived Socio-Cultural Factors Contributing to Undernutrition Among Under-Fives in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania.

Objective: Under nutrition especially among under-fives is a major public health challenge in Tanzania. However, the contribution of cultural practices to child under nutrition is often overlooked. This study aimed to explore the perceived socio-cultural factors contributing to the persisting under nutrition among under-fives in Tanzania. Methods: The study applied focus group discussion (FDGs) with forty practitioners to examine the sociocultural factors contributing to under nutrition during early childhood. The study participants were purposively selected and thematic analysis was used to identify themes within the data. Results: This study revealed that, under nutrition for under-fives is caused by a number of socio-cultural factors including existence of gender inequality related to dietary practices and qualities, women's excessive workload, patriarchy social-norm, excessive alcohol use and cultural taboos prohibiting women and girls from eating certain types of nutrient dense foods. Conclusion: The study highlights the multiplicity of factors including socio-cultural perspectives contributing to under nutrition among under-fives, and calls for a concerted efforts in developing and implementing issue-specific and culturally sensitive strategies towards elimination of child under nutrition.

Facilitators for and Barriers to the Implementation of Performance Accountability Mechanisms for Quality Improvement in the Delivery of Maternal Health Services in a District Hospital in Pwani Region, Tanzania.

Tanzania experiences a burden of maternal mortality and morbidity. Despite the efforts to institute accountability mechanisms, little is known about quality improvement in the delivery of maternal health services. This study aimed at exploring barriers and facilitators to enforcing performance accountability mechanisms for quality improvement in maternal health services. A case study design was used to conduct semi-structured interviews with thirteen key informants. Data were analyzed using thematic analyses. The findings were linked to two main performance accountability mechanisms: maternal and perinatal death reviews (MPDRs) and monitoring and evaluation (M&E). Prioritization of the maternal health agenda by the government and the presence of maternal death review committees were the main facilitators for MPDRs, while negligence, inadequate follow-up, poor record-keeping, and delays were the main barriers facing MPDRs. M&E was facilitated by the availability of health management information systems, day-to-day ward rounds, online ordering of medicines, and the use of biometrics. Non-use of data for decision-making, supervision being performed on an ad hoc basis, and inadequate health workforce were the main barriers to M&E. The findings underscore that barriers to the performance accountability mechanisms are systemic and account for limited effectiveness in the improvement of quality of care.

Determinants of Focused Antenatal Care Utilization Among Women in Simiyu Region Tanzania.

Antenatal care (ANC) is a critical period for promoting the health of both mothers and babies. ANC visit is a key entry point for a pregnant woman to the health care system to receive health intervention. The new World Health Organization (WHO) guideline recommends eight ANC contacts. However, the coverage of at least four ANC visits is still low in the Simiyu region. Objective: To assess determinants of focused ANC visits utilization among women in the Simiyu Region Tanzania. Methodology: The study employed a cross-sectional study among women of reproductive age. Data was collected through an interviewer-administered questionnaire and analyzed using Stata version 15. Data were summarized using mean and standard deviation for continuous variables while frequency and percentage were used for categorical variables. A generalized linear model, Poisson family, with a log link was used to identify determinants of focused ANC utilization. Results: All 785 women analyzed reported having at least one ANC visit, with 259 (34%) having four or more visits and only 40 (5.1%) having eight or more visits. Women who made a self-decision were 30% less likely to complete four and more ANC visits than their counterparts (APR = 0.70; 95%CI = 0.501-0.978). Women who visited the dispensary were 27% less likely to complete four ANC visits than those who visited health centers (APR = 0.73; 95%CI = 0.540-0.982). However, education level and planned pregnancy were both marginally significantly associated with focused ANC utilisation. Conclusion: Generally, the majority of pregnant women in the Simiyu region do not adequately utilize four and more ANC visits. There is a need to enhance health education to women and their spouses on the importance of attending four or more visits and improving the quality of maternal health services to facilitate the utilization of ANC among women in the study area.

Healthcare teams' ethical obligations towards care of adolescents' living with human immunodeficiency virus disease.

AIM: To explore healthcare team members' perceptions of their ethical obligations toward HIV-positive adolescents and their enrolment in and adherence to antiretroviral therapy among adolescents attending a Care and Treatment Center (CTC) in Temeke Regional Referral Hospital in Tanzania. DESIGN: This is a descriptive exploratory qualitative study. METHODS: A total of 16 healthcare team members were purposively selected from the hospital CTC to participate in in-depth qualitative interviews. With the aid of NVivo software, qualitative thematic analysis was used to analyze the information. RESULTS: Five themes on ethical obligations emerged: (1) informing adolescents of their status before enrolment to the HIV CTC, (2) securing adolescents' confidential information, (3) disclosing adolescents' HIV status, (4) informing others about the adolescent's HIV status; and (5) offering reproductive health education for adolescents living with HIV. CONCLUSION: The healthcare team faces many ethical challenges in the care and support of adolescents who enroll in an HIV CTC in Tanzania. Differing ethical obligations must be balanced with the needs of adolescents and their parents in discerning what is in the best interest of the adolescent and advocating for life-saving treatment.

Testers' compliance to the quality standards of HIV rapid testing services in Primary Health Care Facilities in Makete District, Tanzania.

Background: HIV rapid testing services is one among key interventions in the controlling of HIV/AIDS. Despite availability of quality standards, the quality of HIV rapid testing services remains questionable since non-laboratory testers are allowed to conduct testing while they are not specialized in providing testing services. Objective: To evaluate the compliance to the quality standards of HIV rapid testing services provided by non-laboratory testers in Makete District, Tanzania. Methods: An explanatory descriptive study employing quantitative approach of data collection was used. An observation of 23 non-laboratory testers performing HIV rapid tests, observation of HIV testing points and documents review was done in 23 testing points to collect data. Data were analyzed using a programmed excel sheet and a three-point scale was used to determine the level of compliance to quality standards. Results: Analysis shows that out of 23 testing points visited, the level of compliance to quality standards was lower for 22 (95.6%) testing points and moderate in 1 (4.4%) testing point. None of the testing point was highly complied to quality standards for HIV rapid testing services. Conclusion: The quality of HIV rapid testing services provided by non-laboratory testers is below the established quality standards for HIV rapid testing services.

Perceptions and Experiences of Health Care Workers on Accountability Mechanisms for Enhancing Quality Improvement in the Delivery of Maternal Newborns and Child Health Services in Mkuranga, Tanzania.

Background: Maternal mortality estimates globally show that by 2017 there were still 211 deaths per 100,000 live births; more strikingly, 99% of them happen in low and middle-income countries, including Tanzania. There has been insufficient progress in improving maternal and newborn health despite the efforts to strengthen the health systems, to improve the quality of maternal health in terms of training and deploying human resources for health, constructing health facilities, and supplying medical products. However, fewer efforts are invested in enhancing accountability toward the improvement of the quality of maternal health care. This the study was conducted to explore the perceptions of healthcare workers regarding accountability mechanisms for enhancing quality improvement in the delivery of maternal newborn and child health services in Tanzania. Methods: We adopted phenomenology as a study design to understand how health workers perceive accountability and data were collected using semi-structured interviews. We then used thematic analysis to analyze themes and sub- themes. Results: The study revealed four categories of perceptions namely, differences in the conceptualization of accountability and accountability mechanisms, varied opinions about the existing accountability mechanisms, perceived the usefulness of accountability mechanisms, together with perceived challenges in the enforcement of accountability mechanisms. Conclusion: Perceived variations in the understanding of accountability among healthcare workers signaled a proper but fragmented understanding of accountability in maternal care. Accountability mechanisms are perceived to be useful for enhancing hard work in the provision of maternal health services. Moreover, inadequate motivation resulting from health system bottlenecks tend to constrain enforcement of accountability in the provision of maternal care services. Thus, we recommend that the government should deal with health system constraints and enforce regular monitoring and supervision.

Qualitative inquiry into adolescents' experience of ethical challenges during enrollment and adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Temeke Regional Referral Hospital, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Adolescents living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) experience challenges, including lack of involvement in their care as well nondisclosure of HIV status, which leads to poor adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART). Parents have authority over their children, but during adolescence there is an increasing desire for independence. The aim of the study was to explore adolescents' experience of challenges identified by adolescents ages 10-19 years attending HIV care and treatment at Temeke Regional Referral Hospital in Tanzania. METHODS: An exploratory descriptive qualitative design was employed in the HIV Care and Treatment Centre (CTC) in the Out-Patient Department at the Temeke Regional Referral Hospital in Tanzania with adolescents living with HIV who were 10-19 years of age. A total of 22 adolescents participated in semi-structured face-to-face interviews after parental consent and adolescent assent were obtained. Participants were interviewed about their participation in decisions to be tested for HIV and enrolled in the CTC, concerns surrounding disclosure of their HIV status to the adolescent or to others, stigma and discrimination, and the effect of these challenges on their adherence to medication. All interviews were audio-taped, transcribed verbatim in Swahili, and back-translated to English. Data analysis included both inductive and deductive thematic analysis. RESULTS: Qualitative themes identified included lack of participation in decisions about HIV testing, challenges to enrollment in care and treatment; issues around disclosure of HIV status, such as delays in disclosure to the adolescent and disclosure to other persons and benefits and harms of such disclosures; and factors supporting and interfering with adherence to ART, such as parental support, organizational (clinic) support and problems, and self-stigmatization and shame. CONCLUSION: Lack of adolescents' involvement in their care decision making and delayed disclosure of HIV status to the adolescent were identified concerns, leading to poor adherence to ART among adolescents. Disclosure to others, especially teachers, helped adolescents at school to take their medication properly. Disclosure to others led to stigma and discrimination for some adolescents. More research is needed to better understand the role of disclosure and its benefits and challenges for HIV-positive adolescents in Tanzania.

Advances in training of the specialized human resources for health in Tanzania: the case of Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences.

BACKGROUND: Increasing the number of specialized human resources for health is paramount to attainment of the United Nations sustainable development goals. Higher learning institutions in low-and middle-income countries must address this necessity. Here, we describe the 5-years trends in accreditation of the clinical and non-clinical postgraduate (PG) programmes, student admission and graduation at the Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences (MUHAS) in Tanzania, highlighting successes, challenges and opportunities for improvement. METHODS: This was a retrospective longitudinal study describing trends in PG training at MUHAS between 2015 and 2016 and 2019-2020. Major interventions in the reporting period included university-wide short course training programme to faculty on curricula development and initiation of online application system. Data were collected through a review of secondary data from various university records and was analyzed descriptively. Primary outcomes were the number of accredited PG programmes, number of PG applicants as well as proportions of applicants selected, applicants registered (enrolled) and students graduated, with a focus on gender and internationalization (students who are not from Tanzania). RESULTS: The number of PG programmes increased from 60 in 2015-2016 to 77 in 2019-2020, including programmes in rare fields such as cardiothoracic surgery, cardiothoracic anesthesia and critical care. The number of PG applications, selected applicants, registered applicants and PG students graduating at the university over the past five academic years had steadily increased by 79, 81, 50 and 79%, respectively. The average proportions of PG students who applied, were selected and registered as well as graduated at the university over the past five years by gender and internationalization has remained stably at 60% vs. 40% (male vs. female) and 90% vs. 10% (Tanzanian vs. international), respectively. In total, the university graduated 1348 specialized healthcare workers in the five years period, including 45 super-specialists in critical fields, through a steady increase from 200 graduates in 2015-2016 to 357 graduates in 2019-2020. Major challenges encountered include inadequate sponsorship, limited number of academic staff and limited physical infrastructure for teaching. CONCLUSION: Despite challenges encountered, MUHAS has made significant advances over the past five years in training of specialized and super-specialized healthcare workforce by increasing the number of programmes, enrollment and graduates whilst maintaining a narrow gender gap and international relevance. MUHAS will continue to be the pillar in training of the specialized human resources for health and is thus poised to contribute to timely attainment of the health-related United Nations sustainable development goals in Tanzania and beyond, particularly within the Sub-Saharan Africa region.

Accommodate or Reject: The Role of Local Communities in the Retention of Health Workers in Rural Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: While over 70% of the population in Tanzania reside in rural areas, only 25% of physicians and 55% of nurses serve these areas. Tanzania operates a decentralised health system which aims to bring health services closer to its people through collaborative citizen efforts. While community engagement was intended as a mechanism to support the retention of the health workforce in rural areas, the reality on the ground does not always match this ideal. This study explored the role local communities in the retention of health workers in rural Tanzania. METHODS: An exploratory qualitative study was completed in two rural districts from the Kilimanjaro and Lindi regions in Tanzania between August 2015 and September 2016. Nineteen key informant interviews (KIIs) were conducted with district health managers, local government leaders, and health facility in-charges. In addition, three focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with 19 members of the governing committees of three health facilities from the two districts. Data were analysed using the thematic analysis technique. RESULTS: Accommodation or rejection were the two major ways in which local communities influenced the quest for retaining health workers. Communities accommodated incoming health workers by providing them a good reception, assuming responsibility for resolving challenges facing health facilities and health workers, linking health workers to local communities and promoting practices that placed a high value on health workers. On the flip side, communities could also reject health workers by openly expressing lack of trust and labelling them as 'foreigners,' by practicing cultural rituals that health workers feared and discrimination based on cultural differences. CONCLUSION: Fostering good relationships between local communities and health workers may be as important as incentives and other health system strategies for the retention of health workers in rural areas. The role communities play in rural health worker retention is not sufficiently recognized and is worthy of further research.

Testers' compliance to the quality standards of HIV rapid testing services in Primary Health Care Facilities in Makete District, Tanzania

Background: HIV rapid testing services is one among key interventions in the controlling of HIV/AIDS. Despite availability of quality standards, the quality of HIV rapid testing services remains questionable since non-laboratory testers are allowed to conduct testing while they are not specialized in providing testing services. Objective: To evaluate the compliance to the quality standards of HIV rapid testing services provided by non-laboratory testers in Makete District, Tanzania Methods: An explanatory descriptive study employing quantitative approach of data collection was used. An observation of 23 non-laboratory testers performing HIV rapid tests, observation of HIV testing points and documents review was done in 23 testing points to collect data. Data were analyzed using a programmed excel sheet and a three-point scale was used to determine the level of compliance to quality standards. Results: Analysis shows that out of 23 testing points visited, the level of compliance to quality standards was lower for 22 (95.6%) testing points and moderate in 1 (4.4%) testing point. None of the testing point was highly complied to quality standards for HIV rapid testing services. Conclusion: The quality of HIV rapid testing services provided by non-laboratory testers is below the established quality standards for HIV rapid testing services.

Health insurance and health system (un) responsiveness: a qualitative study with elderly in rural Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Health insurance (HI) has increasingly been accepted as a mechanism to facilitate access to healthcare in low and middle-income countries. However, health insurance members, especially those in Sub-Saharan Africa, have reported a low responsiveness in health systems. This study aimed to explore the experiences and perceptions of healthcare services from the perspective of insured and uninsured elderly in rural Tanzania. METHOD: An explanatory qualitative study was conducted in the rural districts of Igunga and Nzega, located in western-central Tanzania. Eight focus group discussions were carried out with 78 insured and uninsured elderly men and women who were purposely selected because they were 60 years of age or older and had utilised healthcare services in the past 12 months prior to the study. The interview questions were inspired by the domains of health systems' responsiveness. Qualitative content analysis was used to analyse the data. RESULTS: Elderly participants appreciated that HI had facilitated the access to healthcare and protected them from certain costs. But they also complained that HI had failed to provide equitable access due to limited service benefits and restricted use of services within schemes. Although elderly perspectives varied widely across the domains of responsiveness, insured individuals generally expressed dissatisfaction with their healthcare. CONCLUSIONS: The national health insurance policy should be revisited in order to improve its implementation and expand the scope of service coverage. Strategic decisions are required to improve the healthcare infrastructure, increase the number of healthcare workers, ensure the availability of medicines and testing facilities at healthcare centers, and reduce long administrative procedures related to HI. A continuous training plan for healthcare workers focused on patients´ communication skills and care rights is highly recommended.

Framing the Drivers of Antimicrobial Resistance in Tanzania.

Despite global awareness of the key factors surrounding antimicrobial resistance (AMR), designing and implementing policies to address the critical issues around the drivers of AMR remains complex to put into practice. We identified prevalent narratives and framing used by epistemological communities involved in the response to AMR in Tanzania, interrogated how this framing may inform policymaking, and identified interventions that could be tailored to the groups believed responsible for AMR. We interviewed 114 key informants from three districts and analysed transcripts line by line. Our results suggest that many different groups help drive the spread of AMR in Tanzania and need to be involved in any effective response. Human health is currently perceived as driving the response, while other domains lag behind in their efforts. For AMR programmes to be successful, all sectors need to be involved, including civil society groups, community representatives, and those working in communities (e.g., primary care physicians). However, current plans and programmes largely fail to include these viewpoints. The perceived presence of political will in Tanzania is a significant step towards such a response. Any strategies to tackle AMR need to be tailored to the context-specific realities, taking into account constraints, beliefs, and power dynamics within countries.

Practices and Challenges of Veterinary Paraprofessionals in Regards to Antimicrobial Use and Resistance in Animals in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania.

We conducted a qualitative study to explore the practices and challenges of veterinary paraprofessionals (paravets) on antimicrobial use and resistance in domestic animals. METHODS: This was a qualitative study, which involved semi-structured interviews with paravets from the Ilala, Ubungo, Kigamboni, Kinondoni, and Temeke districts in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. RESULTS: A total of 40 paravets participated in this study. The majority (72.5%) admitted to having not undergone any formal training on antimicrobial use and/or resistance. Paravets face several challenges, including poor working conditions and having no access to laboratory services to advise on antimicrobial choice and selection. They also face challenges from livestock farmers such as the inability to afford the recommended medicines, the self-prescription of antimicrobials, and poor record keeping. The presence of sub-standard medicine and the lack of guidelines on the appropriate disposal of medicines were also identified as affecting their services. CONCLUSION: Paravets should be trained in the judicious use of antimicrobials, and the same training should be used to refresh their knowledge on the diagnosis and prevention of infections. The Veterinary Council of Tanzania and other regulatory agencies should assist in addressing the challenges facing paravets that are related to animal health services and the quality of medicines.

Facilitators and barriers to effective supervision of maternal and newborn care: a qualitative study from Shinyanga region, Tanzania.

Background: Despite routine supportive supervision of health service delivery, maternal and newborn outcomes have remained poor in sub-Saharan Africa in general and in Tanzania in particular. There is limited research evidence on factors limiting the effectiveness of supportive supervision in improving the quality of maternal and newborn care.Objective: This study explored enablers of and barriers to supportive supervision in maternal and newborn care at the district and hospital levels in Shinyanga region in Tanzania.Methods: This study employed a qualitative case study design. A purposeful sampling approach was employed to recruit a stratified sample of health system actors: members of the council health management team (CHMT), members of health facility management teams (HMTs), heads of units in the maternity department and health workers.Results: This study identified several barriers to the effectiveness of supportive supervision. First, the lack of a clear policy on supportive supervision. Despite the general acknowledgement of supportive supervision as a managerial mechanism for quality improvement at the district and lower-level health facilities, there is no clear policy guiding it. Second, limitations in measurement of progress in quality improvement; although supportive supervision is routinely conducted to improve maternal and newborn outcomes, efforts to measure progress are limited due to shortfalls in the setting of goals and targets, as well as gaps in M&E. Third, resource constraints and low motivation; that is, the shortage of resources - CHMT supervisors, health staff and funds - results in irregular supervision and low motivation.Conclusion: Besides resource constraints, lack of clear policies and limitations related to progress measurement impair the effectiveness of supportive supervision in improving maternal and newborn outcomes. There is a need to reform supportive supervision so that it aids and measures progress not only at the district but also at the health facility level.

Facility and patient barriers in the implementation of isoniazid preventive therapy for people living with HIV attending Care and Treatment Centers, Songea Municipality, Tanzania.

INTRODUCTION: isoniazid preventive therapy for people living with HIV is an essential public health intervention in low-income countries with high tuberculosis and HIV burden. Despite available evidence that it is efficacious, its implementation is still low in many countries. This study was designed to determine its implementation coverage and explore barriers for suboptimal implementation in Songea municipality in Tanzania. METHODS: a cross-sectional descriptive study design using both quantitative and qualitative approaches of data collection was employed. A review of 2148 records of people living with HIV eligible for isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) was done to determine its implementation coverage. Twenty-one (21) in-depth interviews and 5 observations were conducted to explore barriers in the implementation. Quantitative data was analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for windows version 20 statistical software. Descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentage) were employed and data were visualized using tables and bar graphs. All interviews were audio-recorded and analyzed using thematic analysis approach. RESULTS: overall, isoniazid preventive therapy coverage at Songea municipality was estimated to be 45%. Insufficient drug supply and stock out, shortage of staff, lack of service privacy, long waiting time, drug side effects, pills burden, distance and cost of transport were the main reported barriers hindering full scale implementation of isoniazid preventive therapy. CONCLUSION: implementation of isoniazid preventive therapy in Songea municipality had low coverage. The study recommends that tuberculosis and HIV stakeholders must be part of the solutions by ensuring that the identified barriers are addressed.

The Governance and Implementation of the National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance in Tanzania: A Qualitative Study.

Tanzania launched its first National Action Plan (NAP) on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in 2017 to reduce the burden of AMR in the country and contribute to the global response. We aimed to analyze the implementation of the NAP on AMR in Tanzania using the governance framework. In-depth interviews were conducted with human and animal health practitioners and national-level policy actors. We adapted Chua's AMR governance framework to analyze the development and implementation of the NAP in Tanzania. Implementation of the NAP has realized several achievements, including: (i) the establishment of a functioning Multi-Sectoral Coordinating Committee for coordinating the implementation of AMR activities; (ii) existence of governance structure; (iii) establishment of human and animal surveillance sites; (iv) creation of AMR awareness in the community and (v) availability of guidelines at the health facility level to ensure AMR stewardship. However, some dimensions of the governance areas, including reporting and feedback mechanisms, accountability, transparency and sustainability of AMR plans, are not effectively implemented. Addressing these challenges should involve strengthening the collaboration of the different sectors involved at different NAP implementation levels by careful planning and coordination, and provision of adequate resources to ensure sustainability.

Policy actors and human and animal health practitioners' perceptions of antimicrobial use and resistance in Tanzania: A qualitative study.

OBJECTIVE: To explore and describe the perceptions of policy actors and practitioners on antimicrobial use and resistance in human and animal health in Tanzania. METHODS: This was an exploratory qualitative study, which involved semi-structured interviews with nine policy makers and 102 practitioners. RESULTS: Improved multisectoral collaboration and coordination among experts from the animal and human sectors, government will, improved infrastructures, existence of public awareness campaigns on appropriate use of antimicrobials and existence of antimicrobial stewardship were identified as strengths for the implementation of National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (NAP-AMR) in Tanzania. Despite these strengths, insufficient public awareness of AMR, limited community engagement and inadequate human resources were among the reported weaknesses. A number of opportunities for the implementation of NAP-AMR were also reported including the presence of integrated disease surveillance and response strategy in health sector and development of a coordinated surveillance system. Furthermore, the inadequate laboratory capacity and poor resource mobilization were identified as challenges facing the implementation of NAP-AMR. CONCLUSION: The future policies of AMR need to capitalize on the identified strengths and opportunities as well as design interventions to improve public awareness of AMR and community engagement, deployment of adequate human resources and ensure adequate resource mobilization to meet AMR needs.

Response of the social systems to Covid-19 in Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia: A synthesis of the challenges and opportunities

Objective: This synthesis aimed to assess prevailing social systems and behaviours to identify challenges and opportunities towards COVID-19 responses in Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia. Methods: We searched information using set of broad topic-related terms to include articles and documents reporting country specific information on the identified factions of the social systems. The sources included country specific websites, Pub-Med, Google and Google scholar, with full text documents retrieved from HINARI. Results: The challenges identified include media's overemphasis of contagious nature of the disease leading into resentment of the infected people in the community; the cultural practices such as greetings by shaking hands and large gatherings in weddings and funerals which are likely to increase risks of transmission of COVID-19; limited access to water challenging hand washing practices; and unreliable income sources to majority of the community members leading to reliance on daily informal activities to earn a living. All such activities make physical distancing less practical. The opportunities included involvement of religious institutions in provision of health education; enhancing risk communication with the public through different digital and traditional media channels; and the extended family living arrangements as protection to vulnerable elderly population. Conclusion: The synthesis has identified several challenges and opportunities of the social system in COVID-19 response in Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia. The opportunities should be capitalized upon to inform context specific preventive measures and challenges be addressed for prompt prevention of infection transmissions..