The Inhibition of TREK-1 K+ Channels via Multiple Compounds Contained in the Six Kamikihito Components, Potentially Stimulating Oxytocin Neuron Pathways.

Oxytocin, a significant pleiotropic neuropeptide, regulates psychological stress adaptation and social communication, as well as peripheral actions, such as uterine contraction and milk ejection. Recently, a Japanese Kampo medicine called Kamikihito (KKT) has been reported to stimulate oxytocin neurons to induce oxytocin secretion. Two-pore-domain potassium channels (K2P) regulate the resting potential of excitable cells, and their inhibition results in accelerated depolarization that elicits neuronal and endocrine cell activation. We assessed the effects of KKT and 14 of its components on a specific K2P, the potassium channel subfamily K member 2 (TREK-1), which is predominantly expressed in oxytocin neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). KKT inhibited the activity of TREK-1 induced via the channel activator ML335. Six of the 14 components of KKT inhibited TREK-1 activity. Additionally, we identified that 22 of the 41 compounds in the six components exhibited TREK-1 inhibitory effects. In summary, several compounds included in KKT partially activated oxytocin neurons by inhibiting TREK-1. The pharmacological effects of KKT, including antistress effects, may be partially mediated through the oxytocin pathway.

SYK-623, a δ Opioid Receptor Inverse Agonist, Mitigates Chronic Stress-Induced Behavioral Abnormalities and Disrupted Neurogenesis.

The δ opioid receptor (DOR) inverse agonist has been demonstrated to improve learning and memory impairment in mice subjected to restraint stress. Here, we investigated the effects of SYK-623, a new DOR inverse agonist, on behavioral, immunohistochemical, and biochemical abnormalities in a mouse model of imipramine treatment-resistant depression. Male ddY mice received daily treatment of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) combined with chronic mild stress exposure (ACMS). SYK-623, imipramine, or the vehicle was administered once daily before ACMS. After three weeks, ACMS mice showed impaired learning and memory in the Y-maze test and increased immobility time in the forced swim test. SYK-623, but not imipramine, significantly suppressed behavioral abnormalities caused by ACMS. Based on the fluorescent immunohistochemical analysis of the hippocampus, ACMS induced a reduction in astrocytes and newborn neurons, similar to the reported findings observed in the postmortem brains of depressed patients. In addition, the number of parvalbumin-positive GABA neurons, which play a crucial role in neurogenesis, was reduced in the hippocampus, and western blot analysis showed decreased glutamic acid decarboxylase protein levels. These changes, except for the decrease in astrocytes, were suppressed by SYK-623. Thus, SYK-623 mitigates behavioral abnormalities and disturbed neurogenesis caused by chronic stress.

Discovery of 7-Azanorbornane-Based Dual Agonists for the Delta and Kappa Opioid Receptors through an In Situ Screening Protocol.

In medicinal chemistry, the copper-catalyzed click reaction is used to prepare ligand candidates. This reaction is so clean that the bioactivities of the products can be determined without purification. Despite the advantages of this in situ screening protocol, the applicability of this method for transmembrane proteins has not been validated due to the incompatibility with copper catalysts. To address this point, we performed ligand screening for the µ, δ, and κ opioid receptors using this protocol. As we had previously reported the 7-azanorbornane skeleton as a privileged scaffold for the G protein-coupled receptors, we performed the click reactions between various 7-substituted 2-ethynyl-7-azanorbornanes and azides. Screening assays were performed without purification using the CellKeyTM system, and the putative hit compounds were re-synthesized and re-evaluated. Although the "hit" compounds for the µ and the δ receptors were totally inactive after purifications, three of the four "hits" for the κ receptor were true agonists for this receptor and also showed activities for the δ receptor. Although false positive/negative results exist as in other screening projects for soluble proteins, this in situ method is effective in identifying novel ligands for transmembrane proteins.

Role for µ-opioid receptor in antidepressant effects of δ-opioid receptor agonist KNT-127.

Previous pharmacological data have shown the possible existence of functional interactions between µ- (MOP), κ- (KOP), and δ-opioid receptors (DOP) in pain and mood disorders. We previously reported that MOP knockout (KO) mice exhibit a lower stress response compared with wildtype (WT) mice. Moreover, DOP agonists have been shown to exert antidepressant-like effects in numerous animal models. In the present study, the tail suspension test (TST) and forced swim test (FST) were used to examine the roles of MOP and DOP in behavioral despair. MOP-KO mice and WT mice were treated with KNT-127 (10 mg/kg), a selective DOP agonist. The results indicated a significant decrease in immobility time in the KNT-127 group compared with the saline group in all genotypes in both tests. In the saline groups, immobility time significantly decreased in MOP-KO mice compared with WT mice in both tests. In female MOP-KO mice, KNT-127 significantly decreased immobility time in the TST compared with WT mice. In male MOP-KO mice, however, no genotypic differences were found in the TST after either KNT-127 or saline treatment. Thus, at least in the FST and TST, the activation of DOP and absence of MOP had additive effects in reducing measures of behavioral despair, suggesting that effects on this behavior by DOP activation occur independently of MOP.

The first structure-activity relationship study of oxytocin as a positive allosteric modulator for the µ opioid receptor.

Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have drawn attention as novel drug candidates. PAMs can enhance the activities of endogenous agonists which are not only secreted at appropriate times and in parts of the body, but also are immediately metabolized. Therefore, they are expected to show fewer side effects than exogeneous orthosteric ligands. Recently, we have reported that oxytocin (OT) functioned as a PAM of the µ opioid receptor (MOR) which was one of the most potent targets for analgesics. OT is thus thought to be a useful compound for the development of novel analgesics. In this study, several OT analogs were synthesized and evaluated with an intact cell-based assay to investigate the crucial structures of OT for exerting the PAM activity. The assay results indicated that the cyclic structure formed by an intramolecular disulfide bond and the three C-terminal residues containing a small Gly residue of OT were essential for their function as a MOR-PAM. Intriguingly, two analogs having an amide or an ethylene tether instead of the intramolecular disulfide bridge did not have any PAM effects. The results suggested that the disulfide linkage of OT would be a key structure for exerting the PAM activity at the MOR.

Evaluation of the Intracellular Signaling Activities of κ-Opioid Receptor Agonists, Nalfurafine Analogs; Focusing on the Selectivity of G-Protein- and ß-Arrestin-Mediated Pathways.

Opioid receptors (ORs) are classified into three types (µ, δ, and κ), and opioid analgesics are mainly mediated by µOR activation; however, their use is sometimes restricted by unfavorable effects. The selective κOR agonist nalfurafine was initially developed as an analgesic, but its indication was changed because of the narrow safety margin. The activation of ORs mainly induces two intracellular signaling pathways: a G-protein-mediated pathway and a ß-arrestin-mediated pathway. Recently, the expectations for κOR analgesics that selectively activate these pathways have increased; however, the structural properties required for the selectivity of nalfurafine are still unknown. Therefore, we evaluated the partial structures of nalfurafine that are necessary for the selectivity of these two pathways. We assayed the properties of nalfurafine and six nalfurafine analogs (SYKs) using cells stably expressing κORs. The SYKs activated κORs in a concentration-dependent manner with higher EC50 values than nalfurafine. Upon bias factor assessment, only SYK-309 (possessing the 3S-hydroxy group) showed higher selectivity of G-protein-mediated signaling activities than nalfurafine, suggesting the direction of the 3S-hydroxy group may affect the ß-arrestin-mediated pathway. In conclusion, nalfurafine analogs having a 3S-hydroxy group, such as SYK-309, could be considered G-protein-biased κOR agonists.

Morphinan derivatives with an oxabicyclo[3.2.1]octane structure as dual agonists toward δ and κ opioid receptors.

The κ opioid receptor (KOR) is one of the promising targets to develop analgesics lacking morphine like side effects. To seek a novel KOR agonist we designed 6-amide derivatives with an oxabicyclo[3.2.1]octane structure based on a proposed active conformation of a selective KOR agonist nalfurafine. All the synthesized compounds strongly bound to the KOR and some compound showed KOR selectivities. 6R-Amides were more potent and efficacious KOR agonists than the corresponding 6S-isomers. However, most 6-amide derivatives were partial KOR agonist. Conformational analyses of 6R- and 6S-amide derivatives and nalfurafine well accounted for the difference of KOR agonistic activities between two diastereomers. Surprisingly, the tested N-H amides were full δ opioid receptor (DOR) agonists. Among the tested compounds 7a with benzamide moiety was the most potent dual DOR/KOR agonist. On the other hand, 6S-phenylacetamide 8b was potent full DOR agonist with less efficacious agonist activity for the µ receptor and KOR. 6-Amide derivatives with an oxabicyclo[3.2.1]octane structure were expected to be a promising fundamental skeleton for the dual DOR/KOR agonists and/or selective DOR agonists.

In Vitro Analyses of Spinach-Derived Opioid Peptides, Rubiscolins: Receptor Selectivity and Intracellular Activities through G Protein- and ß-Arrestin-Mediated Pathways.

Activated opioid receptors transmit internal signals through two major pathways: the G-protein-mediated pathway, which exerts analgesia, and the ß-arrestin-mediated pathway, which leads to unfavorable side effects. Hence, G-protein-biased opioid agonists are preferable as opioid analgesics. Rubiscolins, the spinach-derived naturally occurring opioid peptides, are selective δ opioid receptor agonists, and their p.o. administration exhibits antinociceptive effects. Although the potency and effect of rubiscolins as G-protein-biased molecules are partially confirmed, their in vitro profiles remain unclear. We, therefore, evaluated the properties of rubiscolins, in detail, through several analyses, including the CellKeyTM assay, cADDis® cAMP assay, and PathHunter® ß-arrestin recruitment assay, using cells stably expressing µ, δ, κ, or µ/δ heteromer opioid receptors. In the CellKeyTM assay, rubiscolins showed selective agonistic effects for δ opioid receptor and little agonistic or antagonistic effects for µ and κ opioid receptors. Furthermore, rubiscolins were found to be G-protein-biased δ opioid receptor agonists based on the results obtained in cADDis® cAMP and PathHunter® ß-arrestin recruitment assays. Finally, we found, for the first time, that they are also partially agonistic for the µ/δ dimers. In conclusion, rubiscolins could serve as attractive seeds, as δ opioid receptor-specific agonists, for the development of novel opioid analgesics with reduced side effects.

Oxytocin Is a Positive Allosteric Modulator of κ-Opioid Receptors but Not δ-Opioid Receptors in the G Protein Signaling Pathway.

Oxytocin (OT) influences various physiological functions such as uterine contractions, maternal/social behavior, and analgesia. Opioid signaling pathways are involved in one of the analgesic mechanisms of OT. We previously showed that OT acts as a positive allosteric modulator (PAM) and enhances µ-opioid receptor (MOR) activity. In this study, which focused on other opioid receptor (OR) subtypes, we investigated whether OT influences opioid signaling pathways as a PAM for δ-OR (DOR) or κ-OR (KOR) using human embryonic kidney-293 cells expressing human DOR or KOR, respectively. The CellKeyTM results showed that OT enhanced impedance induced by endogenous/exogenous KOR agonists on KOR-expressing cells. OT did not affect DOR activity induced by endogenous/exogenous DOR agonists. OT potentiated the KOR agonist-induced Gi/o protein-mediated decrease in intracellular cAMP, but did not affect the increase in KOR internalization caused by the KOR agonists dynorphin A and (-)-U-50488 hydrochloride (U50488). OT did not bind to KOR orthosteric binding sites and did not affect the binding affinities of dynorphin A and U50488 for KOR. These results suggest that OT is a PAM of KOR and MOR and enhances G protein signaling without affecting ß-arrestin signaling. Thus, OT has potential as a specific signaling-biased PAM of KOR.

Identification of a Putative ß-Arrestin Superagonist of the Growth Hormone Secretagogue Receptor (GHSR).

Ghrelin is a pleiotropic feeding hormone which also has a pivotal role in the central nervous system. Upon the activation of its receptor, growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR), the Gαq/11 -mediated and the ß-arrestin-mediated signaling pathways are activated. As the ß-arrestin pathway is a potential drug target, there is a strong need for ß-arrestin-biased GHSR modulators. Activation of the ß-arrestin pathway should inhibit the Gαq/11 -mediated calcium flux through internalization of the receptor. Hence, we used the antagonistic activity in the calcium assay as the first screening for the ß-arrestin activation. By conducting the second screening assay for the ß-arrestin activation based on extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 phosphorylation, we discovered a putative ß-arrestin-biased superagonist. The activity of the compound was not completely blocked with the competitive antagonist, which implies that the effect is mediated, at least partly, by allosteric binding of the compound.

The Japanese Herbal Medicine Hangeshashinto Induces Oral Keratinocyte Migration by Mediating the Expression of CXCL12 Through the Activation of Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase.

Several clinical studies have reported that Japanese herbal medicine Hangeshashinto (HST) has beneficial effects on chemotherapy-induced oral ulcerative mucositis (OUM). Our previous research demonstrated that HST improves chemotherapy-induced OUM through human oral keratinocyte (HOK) migration, which was suppressed by mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and C-X-C chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) inhibitors. However, the association between these molecules and HOK migration was unclear. Here, we examined the effects of HST on the expression of CXCR4/CXCR7 and C-X-C motif chemokine ligands 11 and 12 (CXCL11/CXCL12) in HOKs. Our results indicated that HST upregulated CXCL12, but not CXCR4, CXCR7, nor CXCL11 in HOKs. HST-induced expression of CXCL12 was significantly suppressed by an inhibitor of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), but not of p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). In addition, HST induced phosphorylation of ERK in HOKs. These findings suggest that HST enhances HOK migration by upregulating CXCL12 via ERK.

Visible-Light-Induced Synthesis of 1,2,3,4-Tetrahydroquinolines through Formal [4+2] Cycloaddition of Acyclic α,ß-Unsaturated Amides and Imides with N,N-Dialkylanilines.

1,2,3,4-Tetrahydroquinolines should be applicable to the development of new pharmaceutical agents. A facile synthesis of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolines that is achieved by a photoinduced formal [4+2] cycloaddition reaction of acyclic α,ß-unsaturated amides and imides with N,N-dialkylanilines under visible-light irradiation, in which a new IrIII complex photosensitizer, a thiourea, and an oxidant act cooperatively in promoting the reaction, is reported. The photoreaction enables the synthesis of a wide variety of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolines, while controlling the trans/cis diastereoselectivity (>99:1) and constructing contiguous stereogenic centers. A chemoselective cleavage of an acyclic imide auxiliary is demonstrated.

Author Correction: The Japanese herbal medicine Hangeshashinto enhances oral keratinocyte migration to facilitate healing of chemotherapy-induced oral ulcerative mucositis.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Exploring µ-Opioid Receptor Splice Variants as a Specific Molecular Target for New Analgesics.

Since a µ-opioid receptor gene containing multiple exons has been identified, the variety of splice variants for µ-opioid receptors have been reported in various species. Amidino-TAPA and IBNtxA have been discovered as new analgesics with different pharmacological profiles from morphine. These new analgesics show a very potent analgesic effect but do not have dependence liability. Interestingly, these analgesics show the selectivity to the morphine-insensitive µ-opioid receptor splice variants. The splice variants, sensitive to these new analgesics but insensitive to morphine, may be a better molecular target to develop the analgesics without side effects.

Effects of N-Substituents on the Functional Activities of Naltrindole Derivatives for the δ Opioid Receptor: Synthesis and Evaluation of Sulfonamide Derivatives.

We have recently reported that N-alkyl and N-acyl naltrindole (NTI) derivatives showed activities for the δ opioid receptor (DOR) ranging widely from full inverse agonists to full agonists. We newly designed sulfonamide-type NTI derivatives in order to investigate the effects of the N-substituent on the functional activities because the side chain and S=O part in the sulfonamide moiety located in spatially different positions compared with those in the alkylamine and amide moieties. Among the tested compounds, cyclopropylsulfonamide 9f (SYK-839) was the most potent full inverse agonist for the DOR, whereas phenethylsulfonamide 9e (SYK-901) showed full DOR agonist activity with moderate potency. These NTI derivatives are expected to be useful compounds for investigation of the molecular mechanism inducing these functional activities.

Discovery of δ opioid receptor full agonists lacking a basic nitrogen atom and their antidepressant-like effects.

We have recently reported that the elaboration of the N-substituent in the δ opioid receptor (DOR) antagonist naltrindole (NTI) enabled the regulation of the DOR activities from full inverse agonists to weak partial agonists. The investigations of amide-type NTI derivatives revealed that N-phenylacetyl and N-dihydrocinnamoyl derivatives 3a and 3b were DOR full agonists. The same transformations were applied to a DOR agonist KNT-127 to provide the more potent DOR agonists 6a and 6b. Among the tested compounds, the most efficacious compound 6a showed dose-dependent antidepressant-like effects in the mouse forced swim test. The antidepressant-like effects by 6a seemed to be more potent than those of KNT-127, which is a more potent DOR agonist in in vitro assays. The amide-type compound like 6a may more fully penetrate into the central nervous system.

δ Opioid Receptor Inverse Agonists and their In Vivo Pharmacological Effects.

The discovery of δ opioid receptor inverse agonist activity induced by ICI-174,864, which was previously reported as an δ opioid receptor antagonist, opened the door for the investigation of inverse agonism/constitutive activity of the receptors. Various peptidic or non-peptidic δ opioid receptor inverse agonists have since been developed. Compared with the reports dealing with in vitro inverse agonist activities of novel compounds or known compounds as antagonists, there have been almost no publications describing the in vivo pharmacological effects induced by a δ opioid receptor inverse agonist. After the observation of anorectic effects with the δ opioid receptor antagonism was discussed in the early 2000s, the short-term memory improving effects and antitussive effects have been very recently reported as possible pharmacological effects induced by a δ opioid receptor inverse agonist. In this review, we will survey the developed δ opioid receptor inverse agonists and summarize the possible in vivo pharmacological effects by δ opioid receptor inverse agonists. Moreover, we will discuss important issues involved in the investigation of the in vivo pharmacological effects produced by a δ opioid receptor inverse agonist.

Japanese Herbal Medicine Ninjinyoeito Mediates Its Orexigenic Properties Partially by Activating Orexin 1 Receptors.

Cancer cachexia is highly prevalent in patients with progressive cancer and is characterized by decreased food consumption, and body weight. Japanese herbal medicine Ninjinyoeito (NYT), composed of 12 herbal crude drugs, is prescribed in Asian countries to improve several symptoms such as anorexia and fatigue, which are commonly observed in patients with cancer cachexia. However, the action mechanisms of NYT in improving anorexia or fatigue in patients with cancer are not clear. Therefore, in the present study, we examined the effects of NYT on the activities of several G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which activate hyperphagia signaling in the central nervous system, using an in vitro assay with the CellKey™ system, which detects the activation of GPCRs as a change in intracellular impedance (ΔZ). NYT increased the ΔZ of human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells expressing orexin 1 receptor (OX1R) and those expressing neuropeptide Y1 receptor (NPY1R) in a dose-dependent manner. On the contrary, NYT did not significantly increase the ΔZ of HEK293A cells expressing growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR) and those expressing NPY5R. The selective OX1R antagonist SB674042 significantly decreased the NYT-induced increase in ΔZ in OX1R-expressing cells. Contrarily, the selective NPY1R antagonist BIBO3340 failed to inhibit the NPY-induced increase in ΔZ in NPY1R-expressing cells. Additionally, we prepared modified NYT excluding each one of the 12 herbal crude drugs in NYT and investigated the effects on the activity of OX1R. Among the 12 modified NYT formulations, the one without citrus unshiu peel failed to activate OX1R. A screening of each of the 12 herbal crude drugs showed that citrus unshiu peel significantly activated OX1R, which was significantly suppressed by SB674042. These finding suggest that NYT and citrus unshiu peel could increase food intake via activation of orexigenic OX1R-expressing neurons in the hypothalamus. This study provides scientific evidence to support the potential of NYT for cancer patients with anorexia.

The Japanese herbal medicine Hangeshashinto enhances oral keratinocyte migration to facilitate healing of chemotherapy-induced oral ulcerative mucositis.

Chemotherapy often induces oral ulcerative mucositis (OUM) in patients with cancer, characterized by severe painful inflammation. Mouth-washing with the Japanese herbal medicine hangeshashinto (HST) ameliorates chemotherapy-induced OUM in patients with colorectal cancer. Previously, we demonstrated that HST decreased interleukin 1ß-induced prostaglandin E2 production in human oral keratinocytes (HOKs) and OUM-induced mechanical or spontaneous pain in rats. However, HST effects on tissue repair functions in HOKs remain unclear. Here, we examined the effects of HST on scratch-induced wound healing in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, HST enhanced wound healing mainly through scratch-induced HOK migration. Screening of the seven constituent medicinal herbs and their major components revealed that Scutellaria root, processed ginger, and Glycyrrhiza components mainly induced the scratch-induced HOK migration. Pharmacokinetic analyses indicated that the active ingredient concentrations in rat plasma following oral HST administration were below the effective doses for HOK migration, suggesting direct effects of HST in OUM. Mitogen-activated protein kinase and C-X-C chemokine receptor 4 inhibitors significantly suppressed HST-induced HOK migration. Moreover, HST enhanced tissue repair in our OUM rat model. Thus, HST likely enhanced OUM tissue repair through oral keratinocyte migration upon MAPK and CXCR4 activation and may be useful in patients with cancer-associated OUM.