Substance P and neurotensin in the limbic system: Their roles in reinforcement and memory consolidation.

Substance P (SP) and neurotensin (NT) are neuropeptides isolated in the periphery and in the central nervous system. They are involved in various regulatory processes in the gastrointestinal tract, in the circulatory and respiratory systems, kidney and endocrine system. In addition to the peripheral effects, SP and NT act as neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in the central nervous system, regulating various behavioural actions, such as general and motor activity, pain, food and water intake, anxiety, reward/reinforcement and memory consolidation. In the limbic system SPergic and NTergic pathways, terminals and related receptors have been identified. According to several data of literature and to our recently published results, SP and NT have rewarding/reinforcing effects and facilitate memory consolidation in various limbic regions. In this report evidences are provided about the interaction of these neuropeptides with dopaminergic and acetylcholinergic systems. A hypothesis is presented that rewarding/reinforcing effects of SP and NT develop by modulating the mesencephalic dopaminergic system, while their mnemonic effects are mediated via the mesencephalic dopaminergic and the basal forebrain cholinergic systems.

Comparison of intra-accumbens injection of histamine with histamine H1-receptor antagonist chlorpheniramine in effects on reinforcement and memory parameters.

Histaminergic neurons are located exclusively in the tuberomammillary nuclei (TM) of the hypothalamus from where they project to many regions of the brain including the basal ganglia. Earlier experiments led to the hypothesis that neuronal histamine (HA), particularly in relation to the H1 receptor, has an inhibitory role in learning and reward-related processes. Based on this premise, the objective of the present study was to compare HA with the H1-receptor antagonist d-chlorpheniramine (CPR) in effects on reinforcement and memory parameters after injection into different subregions of the rat nucleus accumbens (NAcc). In the first experiment, mnemoactive effects of CPR (0.1-10 microg) were assessed after injection into the caudal or rostral part of the NAcc with the one-trial uphill avoidance task as a measure of learning. The data show that intra-NAcc injection of CPR (10 microg) facilitated retention of the task, when the compound was administered immediately after training. This effect was evident only when CPR was administered into the caudal-shell but not into the rostral pole of the NAcc providing evidence for anatomical specificity of the intra-NAcc induced promotion of memory. In the second experiment, possible mnemonic and reinforcing effects of HA (0.001-1 microg) were gauged after injection of the amine into the caudal NAcc, using post-trial application in the uphill avoidance task to assess effects on learning and place preference as an index of reinforcing properties. The data show that caudal-NAcc injection of HA (0.1 microg) improved retention of the avoidance task and produced place preference indicative of a reinforcing action. The finding that intra-NAcc injection of HA can facilitate learning and has reinforcing effects is at variance with the proposed inhibitory nature of neuronal HA in reward-related processes. Thus, the disinhibition of reinforcement and facilitation of learning found earlier after partial destruction of TM-intrinsic neurons might not necessarily be related to a lesion-induced reduction of the HAergic tone. The observation that CPR has behavioral effects quite similar to HA suggests that the mnemoactive and reinforcing action of this compound might involve pharmacodynamic aspects beyond its antagonistic activity at H1-receptive sites.

Dopaminergic effects of histamine administration in the nucleus accumbens and the impact of H1-receptor blockade.

The mesolimbic dopamine system is thought to play a critical role in reward-related processes. A number of studies have shown that lesion or inhibition of histaminergic neurons acting through H1 receptors can potentiate the effects of drug-induced reward (e.g., psychostimulants and opioids) and can enhance the reinforcing effects of electrical stimulation of the brain. Since dopamine transmission in the nucleus accumbens is thought to provide a crucial link in these histaminergic actions, we examined the effects of local histamine application (0.1, 1.0 and 10.0 micromol/l) on dopamine and its metabolites in the nucleus accumbens of anesthetized rats by means of unilateral reverse dialysis. To study the influence of H1 receptors, we also applied the H1-receptor antagonist pyrilamine (10.0 and 20.0 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) 20 min before histamine administration (1 mmol/l). Finally, pyrilamine (0.1, 1.0 and 10.0 micromol/l) was locally administered into the nucleus accumbens. The data show that histamine can enhance extracellular dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens in a dose-dependent way. This increase was partially antagonized by prior peripheral administration of 10 mg/kg, and was completely blocked by 20 mg/kg, of pyrilamine. Finally, intra-accumbens administration of pyrilamine locally decreased dopamine and increased dihydroxyphenylacetic acid and homovanillic acid levels. These data are discussed with respect to the possible interactions between dopaminergic and histaminergic mechanisms in the mesolimbic system and their relation to mechanisms of reinforcement.

Accumbens cholinergic interneurons play a role in the regulation of body weight and metabolism.

The aims of the present study were (1) to determine whether selective lesions of the accumbens cholinergic interneurons impair feeding and body weight regulation, and (2) to characterize the nature of disturbances using motivational and metabolic challenges. Rats with bilateral cholinotoxic (AF64A) lesions in the nucleus accumbens showed a significant and lasting lag in body weight gain in comparison to the sham-operated controls. This failure to gain weight was not due to a decrease in feeding because lesioned rats actually ate more food and drank more water than controls under basal conditions. Lesion-induced deficits were also exposed when the rats were challenged with food deprivation or cold exposure. Lesioned rats ate less than controls when 24 h food deprived and maintained both a higher core temperature and a higher metabolic rate than controls following either 24-h food deprivation or exposure to cold. Thyroid hormones, insulin, and blood glucose levels were, however, within the physiological range, and no sensory and motor disturbances were observed. The results suggest that the altered body weight regulation is partly due to the enhanced metabolic responsiveness to stress. Possible explanations for the effects of the lesions are also discussed in the context of motivational alterations, including possible dopamine-acetylcholine interactions.