Anthropogenic Contamination in the Free Aquifer of the San Luis Potosí Valley.

The San Luis Potosí valley is an endorheic basin that contains three aquifers: a shallow unconfined aquifer of alluvial material and two deep aquifers, free and confined. The groundwater contamination documented for the shallow aquifer generates contamination of the deep unconfined type aquifer, from which part of the population's drinking water needs are met. This study records incipient anthropogenic contamination of two types: biogenic and potentially toxic trace elements. The studied contaminants include fecal coliform bacteria, total coliform, nitrate, and potentially toxic elements such as: manganese (Mn), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), and cadmium (Cd). This contamination in some locations exceeds the permissible limit for human consumption. Some major consequences to health, including severe illness, may be caused by the trace elements. The present results give a first signal about the contamination of the deep unconfined type aquifer due to anthropogenic activity in the valley. This is a priority issue because this aquifer supplies drinking water, and in the short or medium term it will have an effect on public health.

Reducing toxic element leaching in mine tailings with natural zeolite clinoptilolite.

The use of natural zeolite clinoptilolite to reduce the leaching rate of potentially toxic elements such as Cd, Pb, and Mn in soil from mine tailings was studied. Soil from the surroundings of the mine El Bote in Zacatecas, Mexico, was analyzed, and the zeolite was characterized by X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and nitrogen physisorption. An ammonium-exchange method for the zeolite was employed. Leaching experiments using packed columns with polluted soil and zeolite mixtures were carried out and the effect of the pH of the carrier solutions was studied. Incorporation of zeolite in the soil achieved a beneficial increase in pH, from 5.03 to 6.95. The concentration of Cd and Mn was reduced when zeolite was present in the column and the ammonium-modified zeolite with ammonia also enhanced the concentration reduction of metallic species in leachates in a range of 28 to 68%. The first-order model best fits the experimental data, suggesting that the leaching rate is controlled by concentration difference between the liquid and the soil matrix. These results demonstrate the potential for using natural zeolite clinoptilolite to reduce the leaching rate of potentially toxic elements in soil from mine tailings.

Formaldehyde and tripolyphosphate crosslinked chitosan hydrogels: Synthesis, characterization and modeling.

In this work, the synthesis of crosslinked chitosan hydrogels was performed by ionic and covalent interactions using tripolyphosphate (TPP) and formaldehyde (CH2O), respectively. The hydrogels synthesis was performed using a D-Optimal combined experiment design with two mixing variables, A and B representing the TPP weight fraction (slack variable) and CH2O weight fraction, respectively, and three (3) process variables C-chitosan concentration, D-cross-linker concentration, and E-Contact time. The response variables studied were the point of zero charge (pHPZC), the swelling ratio (SW), and the equilibrium water content (EWC), which are relevant physicochemical properties in applications such as the pollutant removal from water. According to the ANOVA results, the model obtained was significant; this means it can be adequately used to predicting pHPZC, SW, and EWC from the mixing and process variables, obtaining coefficients of determination R2 of 0.9572, 0.8900, and 0.8447, respectively. The pHPZC is affected by chitosan concentration, while the crosslinker concentration influences the SW, and the contact time most significantly affected the EWC. Morphology and hardness tests, thermal stability, infrared spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy, allowed verifying the types of crosslinking of chitosan with TPP and CH2O.

Assessment of kidney health and exposure to mixture pollutants in the Mexican indigenous population.

The indigenous population is one of the most vulnerable to suffer from contaminated environments. One of the target organs to suffer early deterioration from exposure to toxins is the kidney. The objective of this article was to evaluate biomarkers of exposure to organic and inorganic toxins and biomarkers of early kidney damage in urine from an indigenous Tenek population in Mexico. The biomarkers of exposure were Li, Be, Al, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Mo, Sn, Ba, and Pb evaluated by ICP-MS and hippuric acid for toluene exposure evaluated by UV-coupled with liquid chromatography; the biomarkers of kidney damage were cystatin C (Cys-C), osteopontin (OPN), retinol-binding protein-4 (RPB-4), and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL). Thirty-one urine samples were obtained from indigenous people; 16, 42, 45.1, and 45.2% of the population exceeded the reference values for Pb, Zn, As, and hippuric acid respectively. Our results demonstrate significant correlations between the metals tested and the proteins associated with renal damage; Cys-C, OPN, and RPB4 showed a significant correlation with Li, B, and Mo, as well as hippuric acid in the case of Cys-C and Zn in OPN and RPB-4; NGAL did not present significant correlations with any of the pollutants of the study. This pilot study contributes to the evidence of great inequity in health associated to environmental pollution matters faced by indigenous people and addresses the need of initiatives for mitigation under the perspective that health is a fundamental human right.

Recognition of the importance of geogenic sources in the content of metals in PM2.5 collected in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area.

The study of airborne metals in urban areas is relevant due to their toxic effects on human health and organisms. In this study, we analyzed metals including rare earth elements (REE) in particles smaller than 2.5 µm (PM2.5), collected at five sites around the Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA), during three periods in 2011: April (dry-warm season, DW), August (rainy season, R), and November (dry-cold season, DC). Principal component analysis allowed identifying factors related to geogenic sources and factors related to anthropogenic sources. The recognition of the high impact of geogenic sources in PM2.5 is in agreement with the REE distribution patterns, which show similar behavior as those shown by igneous rocks, confirming the influence of the regional geogenic material. Metals associated to geogenic sources showed higher concentration (p < 0.05) at NE of the MCMA and a significant correlation with prevalent winds. Geogenic metals show similar seasonal distribution, with the highest concentration during DW (p < 0.05), suggesting a possible metal resuspension effect which affects more significantly at lower relative humidity (RH). The metals associated with anthropogenic sources are in agreement with the urban complexity of the area, showing homogenous distribution throughout MCMA (p > 0.05) and no similar seasonal pattern among them. These unexpected results exposed outstanding information regarding the identification of different geogenic sources as the main contributors of metals in the atmospheric environment in the MCMA and highlighted the importance of meteorology in the spatial and seasonal metal patterns.

Platinum in PM2.5 of the metropolitan area of Mexico City.

The increase in platinum (Pt) in the airborne particulate matter with size ≤2.5 µm (PM2.5) in urban environments may be interpreted as result of the abrasion and deterioration of automobile catalyst. Nowadays, about four million vehicles in Mexico City use catalytic converters, which means that their impact should be considered. In order to evaluate the contribution of Pt to environmental pollution of the metropolitan area of Mexico City (MAMC), airborne PM2.5 was collected at five different sites in the urban area (NW, NE, C, SW, SE) in 2011 during April (dry-warm season), August (rainy season) and December (dry-cold season). Analytical determinations were carried out using a ICP-MS with a collision cell and kinetic energy discrimination. The analytical and instrument performance was evaluated with standard road dust reference material (BCR-723). Median Pt concentration in the analyzed particulate was is 38.4 pg m(-3) (minimal value 1 pg m(-3) maximal value 79 pg m(-3)). Obtained Pt concentrations are higher than those reported for other urban areas. Spatial variation shows that SW had Pt concentration significantly higher than NW and C only. Seasonal variation shows that Pt median was higher in rainy season than in both dry seasons. A comparison of these results with previously reported data of PM10 from 1991 and 2003 in the same studied area shows a worrying increase in the concentration of Pt in the air environment of MAMC.

Potentially-toxic and essential elements profile of AH1N1 patients in Mexico City.

During spring of 2009, a new influenza virus AH1N1 spread in the world causing acute respiratory illness and death, resulting in the first influenza pandemic since 1968. Blood levels of potentially-toxic and essential elements of 40 pneumonia and confirmed AH1N1 were evaluated against two different groups of controls, both not infected with the pandemic strain. Significant concentrations of potentially-toxic elements (lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, arsenic) along with deficiency of selenium or increased Zn/Cu ratios characterized AH1N1 cases under study when evaluated versus controlled cases. Deficiency of selenium is progressively observed from controls I (influenza like illness) through controls II (pneumonia) and finally pneumonia-AH1N1 infected patients. Cases with blood Se levels greater than the recommended for an optimal cut-off to activate glutathione peroxidase (12.5 µg/dL) recovered from illness and survived. Evaluation of this essential element in critical pneumonia patients at the National Institutes is under evaluation as a clinical trial.

Assessment of atmospheric metal pollution in the urban area of Mexico City, using Ficus benjamina as biomonitor.

Concentrations of vanadium, chromium, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, antimony, and lead were measured in Ficus benjamina leaves from the Mexico City urban area in order to assess their enrichment against background values. The instrumental analysis was performed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and the analytical method was tested using two certified reference materials from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (1547 Peach Leaves and 1573a Tomato Leaves). Enrichment factors were calculated, i.e., total to background concentration ratio, for each metal. Low enrichments of vanadium, cobalt, nickel, and copper (≈2), and mild enrichments of chromium and zinc (4.4, 4.5 respectively) were found in the entire area; oppositely, high enrichments were assessed for antimony (28.6) and lead (17.2). However, results indicate that metal concentrations strongly depend on the specific urban sub-area. Increments of metals were attributed to natural, vehicular, and industrial sources.